II 




Class _nUill3J 
Bnnk ' V/o, 






CDPXRIGHT DEPOSm 



CUTTING 
CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



CUTTING 
CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

Ways by tv/iic/i Central Station Majiagei^s, Operating 

Engineers and Sales Managers are 

Meeting High Costs 



Compiled by 
S. B. WILLIAMS 

Commercial Editor, Electrical World 



First Edition 



PUBLISHED BY 

ELECTRICAL WORLD 



McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc. 

Sole Selling Agents 

239 WEST 39th STREET, NEW YORK 

1919 






Copyright, 1919, by the 
McGRAW-HILL COMPANY, Inc. 



\v^ 



.^0 



fiPR 23 19)9 



(7bci.A51?5l01 



PREFACE 



Central stations during the great war met the problems of fur- 
nishing energy under heavj^ restrictions. War brought the ne- 
cessity of producing power with poor fuels, higher labor costs 
and extraordinary conditions of demand in many localities. 

The central station manager produces electricity to sell. He 
has always been aggressive in producing power at lower costs and 
the war has acted as an added incentive to make useful every 
pound of coal, every piece of machinery and equipment and every 
dollar of administrative and selling expense. 

Practical methods by which scores of central station men the 
country over have worked out their problems have been compiled 
in this book. The material has appeared in the Electrical World 
during the last nine months of war. In many cases, one man's 
idea in one issue has suggested to some other man his plan, which 
in subsequent issues has been presented for the industry. 

The industry now is entering a period of reconstruction and 
many of the plans and methods which have proved successful 
have a direct application in the everyday practice of the central 
station manager. 

To make this material most easil}^ available to the reader, the 
book has been divided into sections — taking up in order operat- 
ing economies in boiler and generating rooms, line construction 
and distribution methods and substation practice, then commer- 
cial practice and administrative plans, including tried out meth- 
ods of reducing costs of meter reading, billing collections, the 
discontinuance of free service and the financing of extensions. 
The book concludes with timely articles on the training of women 
in central station work. 

This book is essentially a collection of methods. It is pre- 
sented as a practical help to the men in responsible charge of 
central station work — a convention on paper to help solve every- 
day problems. 



CONTENTS 



fAGE 

Preface v 

Section 1 The Boiler and Engine Rooms 1 

Section 2 The System 104 

Section 3 The Shop . 196 

Section 4 JMeter Reading, Billing and Bill Delivery, 

AND Collections . 201 

Section 5 Commercial Department 240 

Section 6 Management 271 

Section 7 Female Labor 300 

Index 314 



CUTTING 
CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



SECTION I 
THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 



INCREASING PLANT EFFICIENCY 

Higher boiler pressures, higher temperatures of superheat, 
higher vacua, the use of powdered coal, the installation of boiler 
efficiency instruments and the introduction of bonus systems 
are six means which an operating engineer in the Middle West 
considers as most likely to produce important coal savings. 
Boiler pressures higher than the standard are considered the 
most important source of saving. While the general impression 
now is that no saving can be made by going to higher pressures 
on account of the high cost of the equipment, it is the belief of 
some engineers that when development charges have been some- 
what reduced it will be possible to make high-pressure equipment 
at less cost than apparatus for 200 lb. (14 kg.) pressure. This 
opinion is based upon the belief that the boilers for higher 
pressures will contain smaller tubes, which will give more area 
with the use of less metal. While the theoretical saving which 
can be made by the use of higher superheat is small, the actual 
saving is really greater than the theoretical saving, owing to the 
fact that the elimination of moisture from the steam through- 
out a large part of the duty cycle of the steam very largely re- 
duces friction losses. As is well known, many experimenters 
are working on the problem of powdered coal, and although a 
number of attempts have been made to promote fraudulent 



2 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

schemes in this field, a real and legitimate work is being done. 
Sooner or later it will bring about successful means to release 
for active work more of the heat units in coal. 

The saving which can be made through the use of higher 
vacua is probably one that demands attention in every plant at 
the present time. All operators do not thoroughly realize that 
an increase in the vacuum from 28 in. to 29 in. (71 cm. to 74 
cm.) effects a 4 per cent saving on the coal pile, the engineer re- 
ferred to says. It is usually practicable to make such an in- 
crease, although it sometimes entails the installation of better 
air-pump equipment. Installing boiler-room efficiency instru- 
ments and adopting bonus systems should be considered to- 
gether. They assume increased importance daily as the shortage 
of power-plant labor becomes more apparent. It is altogether 
possible that the tendency of the current year will be to employ 
more intelligent help for the boiler room, even to the partial 
neglect of the turbine room, so that the investment in boiler- 
room efficiency instruments and the bonus-paid employees may 
be capitalized to the fullest extent. 

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR ECONOMY IN USE 

OF FUEL 

An interesting contribution on the subject of the burning of 
lower-grade fuels without greatly increasing the boiler-room 
investment is made by P. B. Juhnke, chief load dispatcher of 
the Commonwealth Edison Company of Chicago. 

The steaming value of a given coal is within certain well- 
defined limits a function of the size of the coal; likewise, the 
price of coal is dependent on the size selected, screenings being 
rated lowest in value. While their test B.t.u. value may be 
equivalent to that of any given coal, their steaming value in 
boiler rooms is considerably lower than similar screened coal. 
However, as screenings will always be a necessary by-product in 
the coal industry and as 90 per cent of the time they are sufficient, 
they constitute the logical fuel for central stations. 

Burning the lower grade of fuel exclusively, however, requires 
additional boiler-room equipment over what would be required 
with the more expensive screened coal for a given steaming 
capacity. The additional investment required is vitally impor- 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 3 

tant to central-station companies, whose loads have the familiar 
sharp peaks, during which time alone the development of max- 
imum capacity is necessary. 

A decided step in the direction of economy of both boiler- 
room investment and hig'h-jzrade fuel has been made bj" the Com- 
monwealth Edison Company in its principal ^^oneratino: stations 
during several peak seasons. The fuel ordinarily burned is not 
quite sufficient for the development of maximum capacity during 
the winter evening peaks, and is supplemented in these periods 
by higher-grade fuel, to permit maximum output. This is done 
by storing the more suitable coal on the floor and during the 
peak supplementing the stoker firing of lower-grade fuel by hand 
firing of the higher-grade fuel in the proportion of approximately 
fifty-fift3\ Such practice permits good combustion of the entire 
supply and enables the stations to carry their rated full load 
and more at the most critical time of the daily load, something 
that would be scarcely possible were the hand firing of high- 
grade coal not resorted to. 

This scheme of developing full load, however, is not altogether 

free of objections. First, it requires that a large amount of 
coal be stored on the boiler-room floor, a poor place for coal 
according to modern conceptions. Second, it requires a large 
amount of help to store and shovel the coal into the stoker, and 
this help may be difficult to obtain and is quite expensive. 

To overcome these difficulties a scheme has been adopted at the 
Eisk Street station which has proved quite satisfactory. High- 
grade coal is kept in one bunker out of every group of sixteen, 
and the corresponding boiler is kept banked at all times except 
during peak loads. A traveling bucket movable by a crane is 
filled from this bunker to supply high-grade fuel to any other 
hopper requiring it. This arrangement has reduced the labor 
expense considerably. 

Despite the aforesaid difficulties connected with this method 
of supplementing low-grade with high-grade coal when required, 
the underlying principle seems good enough to demand special 
consideration from designers who look to the fuel situation ahead. 
Provision for auxiliary high-grade coal bunkers that will be large 
enough to meet the increased demands during peak periods has 
been made in a few stations, but it might be advisable for all 
future stations. The capacities of such bunkers need hardly 



4 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

exceed 5 per cent to 10 per cent of the ordinary bunker capacity. 
Perhaps one or more central bunkers with chutes to a number of 
stokers would be desirable, but the method of storing and dis- 
tributing the coal is mosth^ a matter of detail arrangement. 

It is not difficult to imagine conditions which will give addi- 
tional economic importance to providing auxiliary bunkers for 
peak coal, conditions which will affect operating costs as well as 
investment cost. When they obtain, such an arrangement will 
recommend itself still more forcibly and is likely to show a de- 
cided saving both in the outlay for investment and in operating 
costs. 

To state offhand the saving effected in dollars and cents is 
somewhat difficult, as location, the price of coal, cost of boiler 
equipment, and the like, are factors entering into the matter. 
Outside of the auxiliary coal bunkers, very few other changes 
will be necessary to adjust the fuel to the load conditions. AVith 
such an arrangement one precaution would have to be taken — 
to prevent waste of the higher grade coal, it being much easier to 
burn. With hand firing the difficulties connected with burning 
the higher-grade fuel serve as a good brake against this tendency 
in human beings to make things as easy for themselves as possible. 
But even at the worst it would not be a grievous problem for 
modern types of generating-station executives to solve. 



EXPERIENCE WITH PULVERIZED COAL 

In an effort to determine the advisability of utilizing pulver- 
ized fuel in its plants, the Milwaukee Electric Railway & Light 
Company early in 1918 decided upon a trial installation at the 
Oneida Street station. The necessary equipment for preparing 
and feeding the coal was installed and the boiler was placed in 
service during the early part of May. From that time until early 
in August, when the installation was finally proved successful, 
changes were made to eliminate undesirable conditions encoun- 
tered during preliminary operation. 

Drying and Pulverizing Equipment. The drying and pul- 
verizing equipment, installed in a room near the plant coal 
bunkers, consists of one 15-ton-per-hour indirect-fired dryer and 
one 4-ton-per-hour pulverizer. From one of the coal bunkers 
the fuel as delivered to the plant is carried to the drj^er supply 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 5 

bin by means of a screw conveyor and bucket elevator. From 
this supply bin the coal is drawn into the drying cylinder by 
means of another screw. It is carried through the dryer by 
means of gravity and discharged into an elevator which carries 
the dried fuel to the pulverizer supply bin. In the dryer the 
moisture is reduced from 11 per cent to 1 per cent at the rate of 
about 10 tons per hour. 

In passing to the pulverizer supply bin the coal is run over a 
magnetic separator pulley which removes such iron and steel as 
has been carried that far. From the bin last mentioned the fuel 
is fed to the pulverizer through a small screw conveyor on top of 
the mill. Being driven from the mill shaft by means of a small 
belt, this screw can be varied in speed through a cone pulley 
arrangement to allow for the kind of material being powdered. 

After passing through the pulverizer the fuel is carried by 
means of a screw conveyor to the pulverized-fuel storage bin in 
front of the boiler. All drives on the conveying and pulverizing 
equipment are so arranged that only such machinery as is in use 
will be operating. 

The equipment for firing the fuel into the furnace consists of 
a blower and two screws driven by variable-speed motors. The 
screws, at the base of the powdered coal bin, carry the coal at a 
uniform rate to the feeder pipes, where it is thoroughly mixed 
with air by means of agitator wheels attached to the end of the 
screw shafts. From the paddlewheel the fuel is carried into the 
furnace by the air blast supplied from the blower. The furnace 
is of the Dutch-oven type so as to insure the proper flame travel, 
thus preventing destruction to the brickwork. 

When the boiler was first put into operation a number of unde- 
sirable conditions resulted. An insufficient air supply caused 
high furnace temperatures. These temperatures caused fusion 
of the ash particles and a consequent accumulation of slag be- 
tween the tubes, on the furnace walls and in the ash pit. The 
removal of the molten slag presented a rather difficult proposi- 
tion. It was also found that the combustion chamber was of in- 
sufficient size. High gas velocities resulting from insufficient air 
tended toward destruction of the refractor^^ surfaces of the fur- 
nace. 

A new furnace was therefore designed. The combustion 
chamber was enlarged, and a regulated air supply was provided 



6 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

for by means of a number of auxiliary air openings equipped 
with dampers. The accumulation of slag in the pit was pre- 
vented by raising the point of admission of the fuel into the 
furnace. As a result the flame path was raised above the base of 
the pit; hence particles of ash dropping from the flame are not 
fused. The ash can therefore be drawn from the pit in the form 
of a powder and small slugs of slag. Analysis has shown that the 
ash contains practically no carbon. 

Having established satisfactory furnace operating conditions, 
a series of efficiency and capacity tests were conducted to prove 
contract guarantees. The brickwork was then given a thorough 
trial by carrying the boiler at a continuous rating of 180 per cent 
over a period of several days. A final efficiency test follows : 

Log of Official Test at Oneida Street Station 

Heating surface, sq. ft 4,685 

Temperature of feed water (deg. Fahr.), average 157.2 

Temperature of steam (deg. Fahr.) , average 448.7 

Temperature of flue gases (deg. Fahr.) , average 495.3 

Average boiler pressure 167.0 

Fuel (100 per cent bituminous coal) fired per hour, lb 1990.6 

Water apparently evaporated per hour lb 16,392.0 

Water apparently evaporated per lb. of coal, lb 8.23 

Factor of evaporation 1.1502 

Water evaporated from and at 212 deg. Fahr., per lb. of coal, lb. 9.47 

COo, per cent average 13.85 

O, per cent average 4.38 

CO None 

Average, 

Fuel Analyses : Per Cent 

Moisture 10.49 

Volatile 35.96 

Fixed carbon 49.53 

Ash 15.93 

Sulphur 2.04 

B.t.u., as received 10,779 

B.t.u., dry 12,045 

Accumulation of slag on tubes None 

Condition of smoke Light 

Heat effect on brick None 

Backlash of flame in burner None 

Lb. steam per hour 16,390.3 

Lb. steam per hour from and at 212 deg. Fahr 18,842.6 

Per cent of rating 116.7 

Boiler efficiency 85.22 

(Flues blown five times during test.) 
Fuel Preparation Deductions: 

Coal used in dryer, lb 1,140 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 7 

Kilowatt-hour motor operation (449.3), coal equivalent at 3 lb. 

per kw.-hr 1,348 



Total deduction, lb 2,488 

Resultinfic net efficiency (per cent) 81 

No deduction made for stand-by losses in dryer. 

The boiler is an Edge Moor three-pass water-tube boiler, 
equipped with a superheater and vertical baffles. The coal 
feeders and burners are of the "Lopulco" type, manufactured 
by the Locomotive Pulverized Fuel Company of New York. 

Because of the nature of the equipment the coal could not be 
weighed on the firing floor. To arrive at exact coal figures, it 
was necessary to run all drying and pulverizing equipment free 
of coal. The fuel in the pulverized storage bin was run to as low 
a level as possible and a measurement taken to determine the 
cubical contents of the powdered coal on hand at the start. Coal 
for the test run was then weighed into the system at the moist 
coal bunker. At the close of the run the starting conditions so 
far as was possible were again established. The samples for 
analysis, upon which the test results are based, were taken at the 
moist coal bunker as the coal was weighed in. Moisture samples 
were also taken at the pulverizer feeder and the burners. All 
analyses were made at the laboratories of the Milwaukee com- 
pany. 

The feed water used during the test was weighed on the stand- 
ard tank scales of 2000 lb. (907 kg.) capacity each. All feed- 
pump gland leakage was accounted for in the way usually 
adopted on standard boiler tests. 

All temperatures and pressures were taken with instruments 
which previous to the test had been checked against standard 
instruments. The blow-off piping on the boiler was disconnected 
so as to insure against any possible loss of water. Flues were 
blown five times during the twenty-four hours. 

Flue gas analyses were determined by means of an Orsat 
apparatus. 

Throughout the test very uniform conditions were maintained. 
The speed of coal feeders and the drafts carried were held con- 
stant. The feed-pump speed had to vary somewhat from time to 
time. The variation in the rate of evaporation was, however, due 
to slight changes in the quality of coal during the test run. 

Pulverized Coal Versus Mechanical Stokers. 1. Under this 



8 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

heading fuel-preparation costs will be considered first. In the 
case of powdered coal this information can be classed under 
three general divisions : 

(a) The cost of crushing the coal. This expense is the same 
for both types of equipment. 

(b) The cost of drying and pulverizing the coal. Although 
no cost records are available at present, it is estimated that 32 
cents per ton will cover this preparation cost in a 200-ton-per- 
twenty-four-hour plant using bituminous coal containing about 
12 per cent moisture. 

(c) The maintenance cost of the drying and pulverizing plant. 
This unit has not been determined from actual experience ; how- 
ever, it is estimated that 3 cents per ton will cover the mainte- 
nance. In stoker practice the maintenance cost per ton of fuel 
fired is close to 5 cents. 

Summarizing the above facts, it is evident that, with fuel at $5 
per ton, the gross efficiency shown by the pulverized-fuel boilers 
will have to exceed that shown by the mechanical-stoker-fired 
boilers by 6 per cent in order to offset coal preparation costs. A 
6 per cent deduction from a gross efficiency of 85 per cent gives a 
net efficiency of 79 per cent for the powdered coal burner. In 
stoker practice the maximum attainable gross efficiency at any of 
the Milwaukee electric plants has been 80.54 per cent. Deduct- 
ing 2.5 per cent for auxiliary uses, the resulting net efficiency is 
78 per cent, which is lower by 1.1 per cent than the figure ob- 
tained in pulverized-fuel practice. 

Other advantages resulting from the use of pulverized fuel are 
summarized herewith : 

2. Continuous boiler operation at a uniform rating as well as 
a constant efficiency is made possible. At no time is there a loss 
in capacity due to the clinkering of coal on the grates or the 
cleaning of fires. 

3. Heavy overloads can be taken on or dropped off in a very 
brief time through adjustment of the coal feeders and the fur- 
nace drafts. 

4. From 97 to 98 per cent of the combustible in the coal is 
utilized, regardless of the quality of the fuel. 

5. The ash-handling costs are reduced to a minimum owing to 
the reduced volume. 

6. The banking conditions when operating with pulverized fuel 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 9 

are somewhat different from those obtained in stoker practice. 
By stopping the fuel supply and closing up all dampers and aux- 
iliary air inlets a boiler can be held up to pressure for about ten 
hours. The furnace brickwork, having been heated to incandes- 
cence during operation, gives off radiant heat which is absorbed 
by the boiler rather than sent out through the stack. 

The ease of controlling the fuel, feed and drafts, the ability to 
take on heavy overloads in a brief time, the thorough combus- 
tion of the coal and the uniform high efficiency obtainable under 
normal operation make pulverized coal a most satisfactory form 
of fuel for central-station uses. 

The full story of maintenance expense is only partly known 
as yet; but indications are that no unusual difficulties will be 
met. The cost of fuel preparation and labor for operating a 
boiler room fully equipped with pulverized-coal-burning boilers 
will be a question for the engineer to decide for himself according 
to his particular conditions. Properly installed with respect to 
capacity of storage, size of dryer and pulverizers, and on a suffi- 
cient number of boilers properly and fully to employ the mini- 
mum number of men, the pulverized-fuel installation will most 
undoubtedly be more advantageous. 

The chief items that must be borne in mind by engineers are 
the ease with which a high efficiency is obtained and the constant 
nature of that efficiency as compared with the absence of these 
advantages in a stoker-fired boiler, unless very closely supervised. 
There is no doubt that wdth a well-equipped plant burning pul- 
verized fuel having all the necessary recording and indicating 
instruments to guide the operators in maintaining the proper 
conditions, a low^er cost of generating steam will be possible than 
has heretofore been the case wdth any other style of equipment. 



BURNING DUST-BEARING COAL 

Several interesting observations on the flow of air through 
coals w^ere made by L. A. Stenger which have a direct beaming on 
the important question of fuel conservation in this country. 
Preliminary tests showed that the weight of air passing through 
a given coal per unit of time is dependent upon the difference in 
air pressure through the bed, thickness and area of the bed, state 
of surface wetness of the coal, and most important, the degree of 



10 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



fineness of the coal particles. These tests were made with a sim- 
ple apparatus like a gasometer, which would deliver a volume of 
air at constant pressure through a cup with screened bottom, 
which contained the coal under test. The time taken to force the 
known volume of air through the coal was measured with a stop 
watch. This furnished data to compute unit air flow. 

^ Different coals of various screen gradings, dust contents, con- 
ditions of surface wetness, etc., were tested under comparative 
conditions. Tests comparing surface, dry, dust-bearing coal with 
the same coal when the surface was wetted throughout the mass 
showed that the wet coal allowed approximately twice the air 
flow that the dry coal would. This is due to the fact that the 
water collects the small grains, holding them together and to the 
larger pieces, thus preventing their settling and filling the void 
spaces. After the coal is again dried, if it is not agitated too 
much, the dust is cemented together loosely by the deposited 
soluble salts of the coal. The resulting increase of air fiow ex- 
plains the improvement in combustion of wetted coal. It was 



DU 


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Figures on Curve Indicate 
Diameter of Hole of Screen 
on which Coal is held 
















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10 20 
















Seconds represent Time 
rr\^os\jrQd on Gasometer 


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Fig. 



300 400 

Air Flow jj 

Lb. per Hour per Square Foot, 6" Coal Thickness, O.B Pressure 

1 — Rate of Air Flow Through Screen-Graded Coals 



also proved that layers of dust, placed either at the top, bottom 
or in an intermediate position in the coal mass, retarded the air 
flow to a much greater extent than if the dust were distributed 
uniformly throughout the coal. 

The comparative rates of air flow through screen-graded coals 
are indicated in Fig. 1. This indicates that air flow was sharply 



THE BOILER AND ExN^GINE ROOMS 



11 



restricted by grain sizes near Yg-in. (3.175 mm.) and increased 
at very rapid rates as the grains were larger. That part of coal 
near Vg-in. grain size and less is designated as dust. The extent 
to which dust in the coal affects the air flow is shown by Fig. 2. 
This curve represents the average of air-flow tests on different 
surface wet coals as received ready for firing. 




100 



400 



500 



Fig. 



200 500 

AirFlov/ ^^ 
Lb. per Hour pe)^ Square Foot^ 8 Coal Thickness, 
0.5" Py-Gss^jre. 

2— Rate of Air Flow Through Coals Having Different Dust 

Contents 

Relation of Air Admittance to Boiler Performance. The 

relation of air ''admittance" of coals to steam-boiler perform- 
ance is shown in Fig. 3, which gives results obtained from sys- 
tematic measurements on air flow plotted against data from 
evaporation tests, with chain grates serving 556 hp. B. & W. 
boilers. Each of these tests was made with care and attention to 
details so as to get the best attainable boiler capacity and effi- 
ciency. The duration of the tests was from eight to nine hours 
each. Slack and screenings were used, the largest pieces being 
not over 1%-in. (3.81-cm.) in size, usually having wet surfaces 
as fired and vary-ing in dust content. Some of the tests were 
made with coal screened approximately dust-free to compare the 
performance of the coarse fraction with a dust-bearing coal of 
the same kind. This was done with both Illinois and Youghio- 
gheny screenings. The B.t.u. value of each of the coals as fired 
was placed on the chart to show its small .comparative influence 
on boiler performance. A dust-free 9900 B.t.u. coal gave much 
better results than a dust-bearing 12,000 B.t.u. coal. 



12 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



It should be understood that the figures representing air flow 
through cold coal before firing it are no index to the amount of 
air flowing through the burning fuel bed, but they do show that 
a coal having limited air admittance cannot be burned efficiently 



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eOO 300 400 500 

Air Flow Through. Coals ,, 

Lb. per Hour per Square Foot, 6"Coa1 Thickness, 0.5 Pressure 

Figs. 3 and 4 — ^Relation of Measured Aie Flow to Boiler Performance 
as ordinarily fired and that there is an important relation be- 
tween that property of fuels and boiler and furnace performance. 
Losses in efficiency due to dust in coal are traced to the diffi- 
culty in maintaining a free-burning, uniform fuel bed. Holes, 
ridges or streaks will form. Air passing through holes and areas 
of burned-out ash causes augmented chimney losses. Areas of 
coal impermeable to air lie inert, are only coked, not burned, and 
finally contribute to losses in the ash pit. Boiler capacity is lim- 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 13 

ited, owing to low efficiencies and to reduced rates of combustion. 

A study of the data presented herewith and other experiences 
with dust-bearing coals on different types of stokers, including 
forced-draft stokers and hand-fired furnaces, shows that it is 
impossible to attain as good results as may be had from dust- 
free coals of lesser B.t.u. values. There is not much hope that 
the operating boiler efficiencies ordinarily obtained in large 
plants can be raised and maintained at any desirable standard 
if dust-bearing coals are burned with ordinary furnace equip- 
ment. To add to the trouble fuel is becoming poorer in all re- 
spects and more expensive. Limitation of boiler capacity also 
contributes to low plant efficiency. This leads to higher costs, 
both of boiler-house equipment and of operation. Although good 
types of forced-draft stokers with the ability to increase steam 
output to 250 or 300 per cent of boiler rating aid much in this 
regard, their operating efficiency is lowered by dust-bearing 
fuels. ^ 

A plan for permanently raising operating boiler efficiency and 
the boiler capacity of a steam-power plant follows : Crush all 
coal, if necessary, so the largest lumps will not be over 1 in. 
(2.54 cm.) in size. Screen on a mesh chosen to remove all dust 
of %-in. (3.175-mm.) size and less. Dry and pulverize the dust 
and burn in pulverized coal-burning furnaces serving a part of 
the present boiler installation. The coarse coal may be burned 
in the remaining furnaces, in which no changes have been made. 

The data in the table give comparative estimates on the plan, 
based on these assumptions : 9600 B.t.u. and 13 per cent mois- 
ture in coal as bought ; 25 per cent of the dust is screened from 
coal (dust having 8600 B.t.u. and 15 per cent moisture or 10,000 
B.t.u. and 1 per cent moisture as fired) ; 40 cents per ton of dry 
dust is the approximate cost of screening all coal and drying and 
pulverizing the dust, or 9 cents per ton of coal bought. These 
costs are based on 1917 prices of a pulverizing plant of about 

iThe "operating boiler efficiency", e= (100 — a) X & X <? X 10-^ where 
a = the more or less indeterminate losses of the plant, from banking fires, 
leaks, etc. a varies inversely with the load factor and may be from 5 to 20 
in value; h is the operating boiler efficiency, and c is the thermal efficiency 
of prime movers, including auxiliaries; e is known from 3420 -^ B.t.u. per 
kw.-hr. The operating boiler efficiency will always be less than the average 
boiler and grate efficiency determined from evaporation tests on the same 
type of fuels used in the plant, and it depends on conditions of fuel, labor 
and boiler-plant control. 



14 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

75 tons daily output and include all the usual fixed and operat- 
ing charges. It may be noted that the operating boiler efficiency 
and some other figures set forth for the suggested plan are 
weighted averages. 

COMPABATIVE DaTA ON PLAN DESIGNED TO BrING AbOUT INCREASE OF 

Boiler Efficiency 

With Suggested 





r J- 


idii — ■ > 




Present 




Pulver- 


Plant 


Opera- 


Coarse 


ized 


Aver- 


tion 


Coal 


Coal 


age 


55 


72 


76 


73 


9600 


9900 


10,000 


9922 



Operating boiler efficiency (per cent) . . 
Calorific value of coal as fired (B.t.u.) 
Lb. coal as fired per 1000 lb. water evap- 
orated 184 134 

Lb. coal as bought per 1000 lb. water 

evaporated .... 139 

Lb. coal as required per 1000 lb. water 

evaporated (includes coal for drying 

dust) , total 184 140 

Lb. coal saved .... 44 

Coal saved ( per cent ) .... 24 

Added cost of coal per ton brought due to 

treatment $0.09 

Net financial saving (per cent) with coal 

costing : 

$1 per ton at plant .... 13.2 

$2 per ton at plant .... 19.7 

$3 per ton at plant .... 21.2 

Approximate increase in boiler rating, 

from 125 to 175 per cent of rating (per 

cent) 40.0 

It may be seen that the net saving is based upon the possible 
increase in boiler operating efficiency only. A further saving is 
possible in plants with the usual load factor of lighting and 
power plants by bringing about a decrease of the quantity a in 
the plant efficiency formula given in the footnote (page 13). 
This was not estimated on account of the indefiniteness of the 
figures involved. It would be no inconsiderable economy, owing 
to less banking of fires, as a smaller number of boilers would 
have to be fired to carry the peak load than under the conditions 
previously existing. 

"With the suggested plan in operation the boiler plant could be 
better controlled and it would be more flexible and more reliable. 
There would be much less ash to dispose of. The savings brought 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 15 

about in money, coal and transportation and the inexpensive in- 
crease of power capacity as compared witii the previous output 
would be very helpful at any time. 



HIGH-GRADE COAL FIRED DURING PEAK 

Influx of war industries coupled with slow deliveries of equip- 
ment made the problem of carrying the 1917-18 winter's peak a 
difficult one for the Moline plant of the Moline-Rock Island 
Manufacturing Company, which supplies electric service to the 
* ' Tri-Cities, " Davenport, Rock Island and Moline. Boiler ca- 
pacity appeared to be the limiting factor. In order, therefore, 
to obtain the maximum rating out of the existing equipment 
only high-grade coal was burned during peak hours. Under 
ordinary conditions Iowa coal was burned. 

Getting the high-grade fuel on the fires at the critical time 
was the chief problem. The difficulty was surmounted by con- 
structing auxiliary bunkers for the high-grade southern Illinois 
coal. They were constructed of wood and were set almost 
against the fronts of the 500-hp. boilers in an elevated position 
so that they could be emptied into the stoker hoppers during 
peak loads by operating a metal-bound wooden gate. The clear- 
ance between these bunkers and the boiler fronts was just suffi- 
cient to afford ventilation and to give space for operating levers. 
The auxiliary bunker in front of each 500-hp. boiler holds 3 
tons of coal. Coal was delivered to these auxiliary hoppers by 
the same machinery that conveyed coal to the overhead bunker 
that holds the supply of ordinary coal. When the high-grade 
coal had to be distributed chutes were arranged under the con- 
veyor so that the coal would be dumped into the auxiliary 
bunkers instead of the main bunker. With underfeed stokers it 
was possible to get as much as 300 per cent of rating out of tlie 
boilers with this arrangement, but with the chain-grate stokers 
175 per cent of boiler rating was about the limit that could be 
obtained. 

At the Fort Dodge (Iowa) Gas & Electric Company, which is 
under the same management as the Davenport company, the same 
idea was utilized in a different way and for a different purpose. 
In constructing the plant permanent arrangements were made to 



16 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

fire two kinds of coal in order to reduce the investment which 
would otherwise be necessary for additional steaming equipment. 
The boiler plant at Fort Dodge consists of 500-hp. boilers with a 
sectionalized 17-ton bunker divided into two equal parts. One 
part is for Iowa coal and one is for southern Illinois coal. Dupli- 
cate spouts are provided to each stoker hopper. During the 
peak, or at times when transmission line failure places extra load 
on the plant, it is possible to get at least 20 per cent increase in 
rating over the best that can be obtained with Iowa coal. It may 
be possible to get even better performance. The great saving in 
this instance comes, however, from the saving of investment in 
one entire boiler equipment, which would amount to around 
$22,000. 

UNIFORM FUEL BED ESSENTIAL 

A fuel bed that is not of uniform thickness, condition and 
porosity cannot be productive of the highest efficiency. The con- 
dition of the fuel bed is often made worse by the excessive and 
unintelligent use of slice bars and pokers for the purpose of keep- 
ing up steam pressure. This results in several losses: (a) It 
makes the fuel bed uneven in thickness or distribution, causing 
holes, with resultant loss due to excessive air; (b) stirring up 
the fuel bed generally causes much smoke and soot, which lowers 
the heat-absorbing capacity of the plant by forming a coating on 
the boiler and economizer heating surfaces and results in a 
greater heat loss in the flue gases; (c) stirring up the half- 
consumed coal and coke brings the ash to the top of the fuel bed, 
where it fuses and runs together, making clinkers. This action 
renders part of the grate surface ineffective by closing off the 
passage of air. 

FUEL ECONOMY WITH BONUS SYSTEM 

One of the objections commonly raised by engineers who do not 
wish to establish a bonus system in the boiler room is that it 
tends to encourage dishonesty by the firemen. They contend 
that under such a system the men must be trusted to weigh coal 
and report all readings and that there is a tendency on their part 
to "juggle" the figures so that the bonus will be secured regard- 
less of the real economy obtained. 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 17 

However, if the bonus is based on the weight of coal at the 
mine and on the kilowatt-hours delivered to the switchboard, this 
objection is obviated, according to a company in the West which 
operates an 11,700-lip. boiler room. 

The men in this plant are provided with everything needed to 
assist in operating it efficiently. A permanent steam leak is a 
thing unknown. As soon as it appears a man is on the job fixing 
it, because in every free steam jet he sees his bonus escaping. 
Although the plant burns lignite, it has been possible since this 
system was installed to get an average economy of about 2.9 lb. 
of fuel per kilowatt-hour. It also keeps the men interested in 
the operation of the plant and creates a better feeling. 

PREVENTING FURNACE EXPLOSIONS 

Probably every one who has operated boilers has at some time 
encountered the furnace explosion that blows fire doors open and 
singes the fireman's hair with the hot flame or blows coal particles 
into his face or eyes. The incident is not uncommon and, al- 
though potentiall}" a dangerous occurrence, fortunately in most 
cases causes only temporar}' disability. The use of so-called low- 
grade fuels at this time of coal scarcity and high prices for 
marketable coal tends to increase the seriousness of furnace 
explosions. A brief discussion of their cause and prevention, 
based on the experience of Gilbert Rutherford may therefore be 
of value. 

Furnace explosions happen either when the furnace door is 
opened or when it is closed. The reason for the explosion is the 
same in both cases, but the manner in which the explosion is 
brought about is different in the two cases. 

Consider an instance w^here a furnace is incased in a setting 
that is new and airtight so that air infiltration is eliminated by 
plastering up cracks and crevices, etc. No air enters above the 
fuel bed, and the furnace chamber is filled with combustible gases. 
The fire doors are closed and the furnace is operating, and at 
fairly low rate of combustion, which means comparatively high 
draft for a thick fuel bed. The fireman now opens the fire door 
to throw on some more coal or to look at the fire or to rake it 
over. There being a difference of pressure between the inside 
and the outside of the furnace chamber, such that the air rushes 



18 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

from the outside to the inside, the air from the boiler room is 
caused to rush in immediately and mix with the combustible 
gases above the fire. Combustion occurs instantly and with such 
rapidity that it has an explosive effect, blowing out the gas and 
coal into the face of the fireman. The simplest remedy is to 
maintain balanced pressures, or nearly so, between the inside 
and outside of the furnace chamber. 

Another common cause of explosion is in cases where the fur- 
nace doors are closed after being opened. Suppose a fireman 
throws a shovelful of slack coal — for example, anthracite dust — 
upon the fire. To prevent cooling the fires he opens the door 
wide, throws in the coal as quickly as possible and shuts the door 
again immediately. While the fire door is open the furnace set- 
tings fill with air, partially at least. The slack coal thrown on 
the fire spreads over the fuel bed and combustible gases are dis- 
tilled. The gases rising from the fire may contain as much as 
80 per cent of combustible. This mixes with the air entrained in 
the settling, the mixture becomes ignited, a small explosion 
occurs, and the firedoor of the furnace is blown open with con- 
siderable force as a consequence. 

The banked fire may constitute a danger in several ways, a 
danger that can be largely removed by remembering that it is 
possible and taking the simple precautions which follow. The 
cause is evidently that virtually all air supply to a banked fire 
is shut off so that the distilled gases do not have an opportunity 
to burn. As a result, if the proper quantity of air is acciden- 
tally admitted a violent explosion is liable to occur. To prevent 
the dangers of an explosion from this cause it is important to 
shut the furnace and ash-pit dampers sufficiently to prevent air 
passing through the fuel bed any faster than is required to keep 
the fire alive; close the flue damper as much as possible without 
impeding the escape of the gases distilled by the banked fire and 
allow air to enter the furnace above the fuel bed. By maintain- 
ing air circulation above the fuel bed and through the flue 
damper stagnant explosive mixtures if formed are able to escape. 
To prevent explosions occurring when opening the bank prepara- 
tory to bringing the fire back to active operation the flue damper 
should be opened some time before closing the air inlet over the 
fire. Then, after the combustible gases have had accelerated cir- 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 19 

culatioD, it is safe to open the fire dampers, and later the firedoor, 
to start up the fire again. 

The crux of the matter of furnace explosions is the control of 
the air. The air required for complete combustion, which means 
highest combustion efficiencies, is different from that required for 
explosion. ^Maintenance of approximately equal pressures out- 
side and inside of the furnace, which is accomplished easily wliere 
the balanced-draft system of automatic control is employed, tends 
to accomplish this automatically. However, care should always 
be exercised to safeguard the furnace and the firemen, and the 
need for this is greater where coal dust and coals of small i)ai'- 
ticles are used. 

BOILER-ROOM MANAGEMENT PLAN 

The best practice for making a fireman is to select a youn^? 
man and teach him the job, it was pointed out by T. N. AVynne, 
Vice-President and Chief Engineer of the Indianapolis Liuht & 
Heat Company, before the Indiana Electric Light Association. 
This course of instruction should last at least two years, and his 
time should be divided between operating and repairing. By 
repairing grates and stokers and cleaning and repairing boilers 
the student fireman familiarizes himself with the apparatus he is 
to operate and hence can fire with much greater intelligence. 
Too much time or pains cannot be taken with a man who is to 
handle the company's coal. 

The fireman must be intelligent and honest — intelligent so that 
he can understand his instruments, and honest so that he will 
not make these instruments lie. In the average plant the fireman 
is turned loose on the coal pile and his job is to keep up steam. 
Usually there is no reference made as to how he is to do this, 
since he is supposed to have completed his education in the dim 
past and to require no further instruction. Experience has 
shown that the average fireman must be watched very closely or 
he will do extremely wasteful things. As a general rule, espe- 
cially in inclined-stoker or hand-fired plants, the fireman will fire 
and sit down, fire and sit down, and follow this plan throughout 
the watch. He will try to make his periods of sitting down last 
as long as possible by firing heavy and then letting the steam 
drop as far as he dares. He then starts a new cycle. The 



20 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



remedy for this is not to allow the fireman to sit down at all. 
This is made possible by having the fireman stand eight-hour 
watches and allowing no chairs or benches in the boiler room. 
This is not a hardship to the fireman. When he knows he is not 
supposed to sit down, he interests himself in his work and forgets 
about quitting time. This results in better and steadier fires 
and higher economy. 

A fireman should not be allowed or required to do any other 
work than attend to his fires. It is the practice in some plants 
to require the fireman to look after pumps, heaters, etc. This of 
course is practical in a very small plant, but in larger plants it is 
decidedly not so. It gives the fireman an excuse for poor fire 
regulation. He cannot be blamed for having a wasteful fire if 
he is at that moment packing a pump. 

A certain number of instruments are absolutely necessary in 
order to determine the degree of economy being obtained by the 



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3 1 


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u,l 


IH 


ii i 


ih 


iil 


lU 


ill 




iil. 


iill 


nu 


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ii i 


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111 


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RtPAlt PAR-ni ii«n 



Fig. 4a — Complete Boiler-Plaxt Record 

boiler and grate. A boiler and grate has a maximum efficiency 
at a certain rating. This rating should be found by an actual 
boiler test. This point of greatest economy is usually around 
160 per cent of boiler rating. This rating should be maintained 
continuously, except of course in cases where it is necessary to 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 21 

crowd the boiler, as at peak load. This is where the underfeed 
stoker has the advaiitag'e over the other types. It can ])e oper- 
ated during off-peak hours at the point of highest efficiency and 
crowded, as has been demonstrated, to 400 per cent of rating 
during peak hours. Operating at 400 per cent is decidedly un- 
economical, but it is no more so than carrying banked boilers. 
The instrument to give this information regarding rating is the 
steam-flow meter. This instrument is the most essential of all 
the appliances of the boiler room. 

The B.t.u., ash, sulphur and moisture must be determined for 
the coal being burned. Increase in ash and moisture decreases 
the B.t.u. and consequently increases the freight bill and main- 
tenance cost per thousand B.t.u. Whenever there is a coal short- 
age it is next to impossible to get the desired quality of coal, but 
no let-up should be made in the demand for the best coal avail- 
able. Sulphur affects the rating which can be obtained from 
grates, especially of the inclined type, but it is not an appre- 
ciable factor on chain grates or certain kinds of underfeed equip- 
ment. 

Necessarily a calorimeter and some sort of coal-weighing 
apparatus should be used. A sample of coal should be taken 
from each car so that the entire car will be represented in the 
sample. A car sample should weigh about 1000 lb. (453 kg.). 
This sample should be handled in the manner laid out by the 
American Society of IMechanical Engineers. The weighing of 
the coal and ash can be done on scales suited to the purpose of 
the particular plant. 

Special pains must be taken at all times with the fire. At 
normal loads a thin, fast fire is probably the best. With a thin 
fire holes are more apt to occur than in a thicker one. Hence 
the thin fire needs more attention, and this may account for the 
fact that the thicker fire predominates. A draft gage will tell 
the condition of the fire better than anything else and eliminates 
opening the inspection door so often to look at the fire. Opening 
the inspection door means a momentary cooling of the gases. 
When the first boiler test is made the draft over the fire neces- 
sarv^ for different thicknesses of fire and boiler ratings can be 
determined. These values can be plotted so that for any rating 
the thickness of fire is known, as well as the draft necessary and, 
in the case of stokers, the stoker speed. 



22 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



ttt**t»»*i*tt»i» 



g:|jliitcii>'i«i>i«B 




ii 

Mil 

mil 

iiiinl 



^ 



9. 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 23 

Two (lraft-<jage connections should bo made — oni' over tlic fire 
and another at tlie damper or base of the staek. The hitter 
shows the amount of draft available at all times. Other con- 
nections can and should be made in case a th()rou«»-h w^atch is to 
be kept on the boilers. These connections should be in the ash 
pit and ahead of each baffle opening'. These will keep a check on 
the places of greatest resistance within the boiler setting and 
will show if any of the openings are becoming stopped up. 

The temperature of the outlet gases from the boiler setting to 
the stack is a good indication of wdiether or not the boiler is clean. 
If the tubes are covered with soot and scale, the water wdll not 
absorb so much heat as otherwise. Soot is a good insulator and 
scale is not ver^^ far behind it. Soot can and should be removed 
at least every twelve hours by means of mechanical soot blowers, 
supplemented by a hand steam lance, for the soot blowers may 
not remove all the soot, and as a rule they do not, especially on 
superheated tubes. If soot is allowed to remain, it will soon 
become a very high insulator. 

The flue-gas temperature should be as near the final heat of the 
steam as possible. As long as the temperature of the flue-gas 
remains constant the boiler is clean, but as soon as the tempera- 
ture begins to rise one of three things or all can be looked for — 
soot, scale or leak}^ baffles. P3^rometers are made so that one 
instrument may be used on any number of boilers, up to and 
including tw^elve, each boiler having its own thermocouple and 
leads back to the instrument. 

Carbon dioxide, or CO2, indicates the condition of the fire and 
the combustion of the gases. In a sense it is the ratio of the air 
used to the air that has not been used. If, in a test for CO^, CO, 
or carbon monoxide, is obtained, it will be on account of one of 
the following reasons : insufficient air supply, improper furnace 
design, improper method of firing, too low a furnace temperature 
so that the gases are too cold to ignite, poor mixing of air and 
combustible gases, or poor selection of fuel. For the average 
Indiana coal and the amount of air required to burn it, 12 per 
cent CO2 is a good figure. Low CO2 is caused by an excess of 
air, insufficient air (w^hich would cause high CO) or improper 
mixture of air and gases. How^ever, the most common fault is 
excess air, and in many cases this is caused by a leaky setting. 



24 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

All settings should be plastered with one of the boiler-coating 
preparations on the market. 

Measurement of COg is important. A drop from 16 per cent 
to 10 per cent COg means a waste of fuel of 5 per cent, while a 
drop from 10 per cent to 6 per cent CO2 means 12 per cent loss 
of fuel, and a drop from 6 per cent to 2 per cent means 57 per 
cent loss of fuel. So there should be added to our list of instru- 
ments a COo recorder. If it can be a continuous chart recorder, 
so much the better, but if it is a hand apparatus, let the sample 
of gas be taken when the fireman is not looking. 

The instruments mentioned constitute those which are neces- 
sary for good economy in a boiler room. They should be bought 
and used honestly. Whenever they give the information that 
there is any improper condition inside the boiler setting, this 
condition should be remedied as soon as possible. The instru- 
ments should be calibrated and taken care of so that they will 
perform efficient service. If they are not taken care of, they 
are worse than useless, for they will lie. This list may be supple- 
mented by others which are important but not absolutely neces- 
sary, such as the furnace temperature pyrometer, a coal sample 
grinder, apparatus for determining sulphur content, CO recorder, 
etc. It would be poor business to obtain certain results from 
day to day from these instruments without properly recording 
these results for future reference. 

A form should be provided for daily boiler operation, and this 
form should include all readings of any value. The readings 
for each boiler should be taken simultaneously as often as con- 
ditions dictate. Care should be taken that the fireman does not 
allow his fire to drop down between readings. 

Another form should be used for the heater and still another 
for the coal and ash. The heater form should show the inlet and 
outlet water temperature and the amount of water used. The 
coal and ash forms should show the weight of coal used and the 
weight of ash for a twenty-four-hour run. It should also show 
the kind of coal, where it is from, and how much is on the way. 
The amount of storage coal should be shown on the same sheet. 

Another form to use is the maintenance form — one that in- 
cludes the repairs made on boilers, stoker, brickwork and auxil- 
iaries. This information will not only apprise the chief engineer 
of the repairs being made but will also give boiler hours on the 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 



25 




26 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

equipment. It is a good thing to know how long a stoker can 
operate without entire replacement or which grade of firebrick 
lasted the longest under the same conditions. These results 
should, by all means, be consulted by the purchasing agent, since 
they not only give absolute data on the life of material but also 
allow him to anticipate his needs. 

All these reports, together with those from other parts of the 
station, are collected at a certain time and consolidated into one 
station daily report. The best time for collecting these reports 
is midnight. From then until morning a clerk can consolidate 
the information and have the daily report ready for whoever 
desires it in the morning. 

Thus the manager or chief en^iineer ma}' look over this report 
for an hour in the morning and tell exactly how the station was 
operated for the previous twenty-four hours. He can tell what 
mistakes were made in operating, what apparatus needs atten- 
tion, or the effect of changes made a day or two before. 

A monthly report and a yearly report should be compiled. 
The monthly report gives the average results for a month and 
compares the month in question with the eleven preceding 
months. Such information as pounds of coal per kilowatt-hour, 
B.t.u. per kilowatt-hour load, pounds of water evaporated per 
pound of coal, etc., is contained in the report. These compari- 
sons should be made in curves. The same outline applies for the 
yearly report. 

Reports should not include useless information or too much 
detail. Be sure what readings or computations are desired, that 
these readings be taken and the computations made for every 
report. Also see that the final reports are looked over every day 
by the chief engineer and that he follows out whatever sugges- 
tions he receives from them. If this sj^stem is not followed out, 
it is obvious that the whole thing is useless, but if it is followed 
out, big dividends may be expected. 

It may seem at first as if all this equipment will cost a prohibi- 
tive amount of money. There is no question that it will cost 
some money, but the investment is gilt-edged. The Indianapolis 
(Ind.) Light & Heat Compam' realized $50,000 saving the first 
year this system was put into force, and with coal and material 
prices as they were the income from this investment in 1918 ran 
over $100,000. 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 27 

BONUS SYSTEM FOR COAL SAVING 

To improve the operating economy of a power plant is not a 
task that can be accomplished over night. Neither can gratify- 
ing resnlts be obtained without first clearly defining the aims and 
plans for the improvement campaign or without the executives or 
operating officials securing the co-operation of the plant em- 
ployees. The first thing to do, according to Walter N. Polakov, 
Consulting Engineer, New York City, is to place the equipment 
in first-class operating condition. Second, the maintenance work 
must be organized so that inspections and overhauling of appa- 
ratus will be conducted on a schedule frequent enough to forestall 
damage and prevent deterioration of efficiency. 

The next step will be to investigate thoroughly each unit of 
equipment and determine by tests its maximum inherent effi- 
ciency. Inasmuch as the results are affected by the conditions 
under which they are obtained, the latter should be carefully 
noted. When this is done the study and test researches should 
be conducted on a larger scale in order to establish the relations 
of conditions governing the operation of individual units on the 
all-around total plant efficiency. Inasmuch as the final aim is 
not the highest thermodynamic efficiency but the best operating 
economy, the preceding findings should finally be modified in 
order to determine and standardize such conditions, supplies, 
methods, etc., as would necessarily produce the desired result. 
In determining the final aims the following aspects should not be 
lost sight of: Best service to the community, w^elfare of em- 
ployees, safety of all concerned, and cost of operation, mainte- 
nance, idleness and standby losses. 

When this part of the work is done, and not before, can the 
actual task setting for firemen, engineers, switchboard operators, 
etc., be considered, as it is evident that with poor upkeep of 
equipment, unstandardized supplies and methods the operating 
men cannot maintain the prescribed conditions. 

Shifting Responsibility to Employee. Many easygoing 
owners and managers of plants, realizing that the actual per- 
formance is falling short of that possible, often shift the respon- 
sibility from their shoidders to those of the employee by offering 
a premium for performance which is sufficiently better than the 
present, leaving it to the employee to secure the ''better results." 



28 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

In such cases the management sidesteps its duty in not saying 
how the better results can be accomplished and what they shall be. 
Such methods are sometimes advocated as giving the employee 
freedom to develop his ingenuity. This sophistry is easily ex- 
ploded when it is considered that the operating man seldom has 
time for investigation and researches. His hands are full keep- 
ing the wheels turning. Furthermore, measuring and indicating- 
instruments and devices are often lacking. The peculiar require- 
ments of a research man — highly developed power of abstraction 
and observation, ability to concentrate on one problem to the ex- 
clusion of all others — are faculties which are seldom, if ever, 
found in men engaged in routine operating work. 

Many Bonus Plans Unsatisfactory. It is generally conceded 
that higher efficiency warrants higher compensation and that 
stimulation for efficient work is necessary for its perpetuation. 
However, the lack of careful study of the subject is responsible 
for many misconceptions. Most of the methods of extra com- 
pensation are unsuitable, yet no better plan can be adopted un- 
less the principles and operating conditions are properly or- 
ganized. The faulty methods may be classified as follows: (a) 
Profit-sharing plans; (b) premium schemes, and (c) rewarding 
individual efforts. 

Profit Sharing. — Profit sharing is based on the assumption 
that the employees by their work contribute to the success of 
the enterprise in securing profits. This would be entirely cor- 
rect if the employees had the opportunity to control all func- 
tions of management, fix the salaries of directors and direct pur- 
chases and sales, besides having a veto in financial transactions. 
As long as they are expected, however, to work under the con- 
ditions provided by the management, with equipment and ma- 
terial furnished by the management, which in turn disposes of 
the product, the profit or loss is only slightly influenced by the 
excellence of the work done by the men. If dividends are not 
declared, the workmen lose their share, perhaps through no fault 
of their own, since even if they have been working as hard as pos- 
sible, blunders in policy and mismanagement will offset any good 
they have done. 

Fremium Plans. — Premium plans, as worked out in power 
plants, are very unsatisfactory. The common error of all the 
attempts in this line is that the final cost of operation is consid- 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 



29 



ered as a basis for the award or denial of the premiums. Vet it 
is perfecth- clear that the cost depends not only on the excellence 
of work but equally, if not in a much larger degree, upon the 
method and means of upkeep, cost of fuel and supply and its 
quality, quantity of output, load factor, use factor, etc. None of 
these factors is under the control of the power-plant employee. 
Besides, the extent to which different employees contribute to 



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J^'iG. 7 — Comparisons of Results Secured in Plants Run by Rule-of- 
Thumb and by Scientific ^Methods 

the attainment of economical results is very unequal. While the 
firemen may effect as much as 50 per cent saving, the switch- 
board operator cannot influence more than, say, 5 per cent, 
whereas the floor engineer can save or w^aste about 1.5 per cent 
at the most. 

The unsuitability of the premium plan was forcefully demon- 
strated several years ago in a plant where employees who had 
been accustomed to earning premiums were unable to do so any 
longer owing to the use of poorer coal and a reduction in load. 

Rewarding Individual Effort.— The rewarding of individual 



30 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

effort is perhaps the most unscientific scheme of all. The same 
objection exists that was cited before — the responsibility for se- 
curing better results is shifted onto men who have no authority 
to alter the conditions under which they are expected to produce 
results. The common error in applying the reward is to select 
arbitrarily one or more isolated factors, like CO2 in flue gas. car- 
bon in ashes, etc., and reward men obtaining the best results. It 
is generally overlooked that any one or several of these factors 
do not indicate the true performance of the whole process. It is 
often wise to lose in one direction in order to gain more in the 
final result. ^Moreover, it is absurd to request men to secure bet- 
ter results without teaching them how to do it and without pro- 
viding them with instruments showing the progress made. 

If one of the advocates of these short cuts would take pains 
to investigate any of his hobbies — whether high CO2, or low flue 
temperature, or good ashes, or anything else that can be produced 
— he would find that the relation of the factors is complex enough 
to warrant detailed study. Furthermore, good results cannot 
be expected unless the equipment used is maintained in first -class 
operating condition and the supplies furnished are the most suit- 
able and of uniform quality. 

A glaring example of inconsistency of the individual-reward 
plan is offered by the experiences of a Western railroad. Here 
it was recognized that the actual performance was worse than 
that possible, and that local conditions of various plants called 
for different standards. 

The work of establishing standards of performance was based 
not on actual experiments but on average statistical data of the 
past, reduced by the guessed percentage suspected as waste. 
Then an allotment was made for each individual plant as to how 
much fuel should reasonably be consumed there per month. 
Similarly, pay rolls were revised and certain labor costs were 
assumed as reasonable. These two records multiplied by con- 
stants arbitrarily chosen (6 for fuel and 4 for labor) added to- 
gether and divided by 10 gave the figure of merit used as a basis 
for the payment of bonus, the bonus itself being adjusted on a 
sliding scale. 

The shortcomings of this crude method are apparent : 

1. Men are left to discover for themselves how to secure the 
results desired bv the manasement. 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 31 

2. The management, shifting the responsibility to the men, 
was uncertain as to the exact amount of saving accomplished due 
to iiuli vidua! efforts, and therefore could not fix a definite bonus. 

Task-Setting Plan That Brings Results. As opposed to all 
these methods, Mr, Polakov advocates the assignment of a well- 
defined task to each member of an organization. The setting of 
a task presupposes the complete and detailed knowledge of each 
and every process performed in the plant and includes reliable 
information as to what each unit of equipment can do and what 
are the conditions producing the desired results. This knowl- 
edge, once gained through test and research work, is made avail- 
able by instructions and training. Results necessarily follow 
conditions ; therefore the task really consists in maintaining con- 
ditions as prescribed, not in attaining results, inasmuch as they 
are assured if all requirements are complied with. 

To determine whether the men live up to their instructions, 
and consequently whether they earn their bonus, it is often con- 
venient to judge by final results. However, these are not neces- 
sarily definite indications, since results may fall short of pre- 
determination because of conditions beyond the control of the 
employee. To illustrate : Boiler efficiency may materially drop 
through no fault of the fireman if baffies and arches in the boilers 
are not maintained, owing to poor planning, lack of material, etc. 
Steam consumption may increase above what it should be if cool 
condensing water is not available. The man may fail to remove 
the ashes in the prescribed time if the locomotive batteries are 
not properly charged, the cleaning schedule disorganized, etc. 
It would be obviously wrong to deny the bonus to the employee 
who did all that was expected of him but who was unable to pro- 
duce results through the fault of somebody else or something that 
could not be prevented by him. 

Under such conditions an investigation should be made, not 
to verify the results, but to find out whether the conditions pre- 
scribed by the instruction card were lived up to. If they were, 
that is all that was expected from the employee and his bonus 
should be allowed him. This basic principle should apply in all 
cases. Favorable conditions may produce results slightly better 
than specified, yet they do not call for any additional reward 
since they evidently are not due to any extra work on the ])art of 
the employee. In other words, the bonus remains constant as 



32 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



long as the terms of the instruction card are complied with, irre- 
spective of whether the results are equal to, above or below a cer- 
tain predetermined value. In case results are below a specified 
mark the bonus should be paid in full or not paid at all, depend- 
ing on the investigation previously mentioned, but never should 
the bonus be reduced. 



Table I — ^Two Typical Reports Showing Increase of Efficiency from 
Adoption of Methods Outlined in Text 

CASE I 

Representative Corresponding 

Week 1917 Weelc 1916 

(Nov. 17, 1917) (Nov. 18, 1916) 

Total coal used, lb 441,280 506,240 

Coal equivalent in shavings, lb 31,350 38,450 

Total fuel used, lb 472,630 544,690 

Total water evaporated, lb 4,901,170 4,625,250 

Actual evaporation, lb. per hr 10.37 8.51 

Average steam pressure 58 56 

Average feed temperature, deg. Fahr 170 168 

Factor of evaporation 1.073 1.075 

Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 deg. 

Fahr., lb. per lb. coal 11.12 9.15 

Average B.t.u. per lb. coal 14,800 13,550 

Boiler efficiency, per cent 72.9 65.6 

CASE II 

Representative Corresponding 

Week 1917 Week 1916 

(Nov. 24, 1917) (Nov. 25, 1916) 

Total coal used, lb 452,480 526,400 

Coal equivalent in shavings, lb 29,700 40,350 

Total fuel used, lb 482,180 566,750 

Total water evaporated, lb 5,045,800 4,837,800 

Actual evaporation, lb. per hr 10.45 8.55 

Average steam pressure 58 57 

Average feed temperature, deg. Fahr 163 176 

Factor of evaporation 1.081 1.067 

Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 deg. 

Fahr., lb. per lb. coal 11.30 9.12 

Average B.t.u. per lb. coal 14,800 13,550 

Boiler efficiency, per cent 74.0 65.4 

The knowledge of how to do things properly and the strongest 
desire to work according to the best methods are of no avail 
unless the conditions are such that it is possible to apply these 
qualifications. It is a well-known fact that the daily perform- 
ance in a plant operating under old-fashioned management falls 
short of the results obtained during a specially arranged test. 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 33 

This is due chiefly to the failure to plan the work ahead and per- 
manently maintain the conditions prevailing during the test. 

In considering conditions which should be maintained to secure 
the best economy the elimination of causes producing fatigue 
should be given first rank, as in power-plant work neither the 
best of machinery nor excellent supplies can produce satisfactory 
results unless they are handled by men who are not tired, mcn- 
tally or ph^'sically. From experiments conducted with firemen 
it has been found that, other conditions being equal, a fireman 
on a twelve-hour watch is about 4.5 per cent less efficient than the 
same man on an eight-hour shift. 

No one familiar wdth the common layout of a power plant can 
over-emphasize the importance of hygienic conditions to enable 
men to live up to their task day in and day out. While engine 
rooms not infrequently offer very pleasant and sanitary sur- 
roundings, boiler-houses, the most important part of any plant, 
are often so built as to make them unbearably cold in winter and 
uncomfortably hot during the summer. Good lighting is so un- 
usual that after looking into the furnace a fireman can seldom 
read the gages or examine anything around the boiler. Good 
drinking water is rarely provided. If provided with restful 
seats having backs the firemen can clean the fires twice as rapidly 
as without them. 

The absence of elementary conditions of comfort in a working 
place where the men spend the greater part of their lives is more 
harmful to the employers than to the employees. Petty annoy- 
ances and feelings of discomfort divert the attention of the men 
from the performance of their duties to means of avoiding the 
annoyance. Steady attention on the part of the firemen is much 
more important than is generally realized. 

Of no less importance is the hygienic surrounding on the 
switchboard gallery. Flickering light from lamps on a low-fre- 
quency circuit, glare on the glass fronts of instruments, cement 
floors to walk on, inconveniently located telephones or telauto- 
graphs, too low log desks, etc., are all excellent means to increase 
steam consumption per kilowatt-hour and reduce the safety to 
men, property and service. 

It should be at least as much the duty of a management peri- 
odically to investigate and test the effect of surroundings on the 
attentiveness and physical fatigue of men as it is its duty to test 



34 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

coal deliveries and supervise the treatment which equipment re- 
ceives. There are many ways to ascertain the degree and the 
character of fatigue, but reference thereto will not be made here 
for lack of space. Whatever the methods may be, they should be 
applied at regular intervals to each and every employee, and 
their individual health-record cards should be kept, using some 
convenient rating to watch easily the decline or gain of vitality 
of each man. Should the decline be noticed, measures should be 
taken at once to find out the cause. If it is of individual nature, 
good advice or doctor 's services should be offered. If it affects a 
group, the harmful condition must be eliminated as rapidly as 
possible. Little alterations that are usually required to remove 
harmful conditions are a great deal cheaper (not to say humane) 
than breaking in and training a new employee, or even a tem- 
porary substitute. 

Table II — Improvement in Pennsylvania Plant by Setting Task Work 

AND Giving Bonuses 

BOILER ROOM 

Coal used (banking excluded), lb 48,800 49,200 34,000 

Water evaporated, lb 419,800 408,200 284,000 

Actual evaporation, lb. per hr 8.62 8.32 8.37 

Factor of evaporation 1.2187 1.2185 1.2287 

Equivalent evaporation, lb. per lb. coal 10.50 10.13 19.28 

Efficiency of generation, per cent 73.4 70.8 71.8 

Cost of fuel per 1000 lb. of steam, dollars 0.0815 0.0845 0.0833 

ENGINE ROOM 

Hydroelectric output, kw.-hr 980 850 30 

Steam generated output, kw-hr 21,220 20,450 15,070 

Load factor, per cent 79.5 G4.4 67.5 

Steam per kilowatt-hour, lb 19.78" 20.00 18.85 

Coal per kilowatt-hour, lb 2.30 2.40 2.26 

Tliermal efficiency of plant, per cent 10.71 10.27 10.73 

To conclude this rather condensed outline of the principles 
advocated by Mr. Polakov, it might be of interest brietly to re- 
view a few typical cases where this mode of management has been 
adopted. Several years ago he was asked to specify additional 
boiler equipment in a plant containing ten Manning boilers 
equipped with Jones underfeed stokers. To-day the old plant 
satisfies the 30 per cent increased demand, using only seven of the 
old boilers, and the efficiency, which had been slightly below 50 
per cent, is now about 73 per cent. No investment of any kind 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 35 

for generating- equipment was made, but about $2,000 worth of 
instruments was provided, which yields 400 per cent interest. 
After the instruments were provided and the efficiency raised 
from 50 to 65 per cent by stopping various leaks, further progress 
was made by training employees in maintaining high boiler effi- 
cienc}'. 

In a Pennsylvania public utility company, where the average 
efficiency as established by an eighty-day observation of hand- 
fired Edge-Moor boilers was 54 per cent, without any expense for 
replacement of generating equipment and with only a few addi- 
tional instruments, the described methods, comprising the task 
work with bonus, improved the average daily performance, as 
exemplified in Table IT, about 83 per cent. 

The adoption of the same principles in a 32,0()0-kw. central sta- 
tion, even without paying bonuses, resulted in tlie improvement 
of operating economy as represented graphically in Fig. 7, 
showing how operating cost was reduced about 30 per cent. The 
dotted line on the chart represents the result of operation of a 
competing plant in similar service in the same time. 

HOW BEST TO EDUCATE POWER-PLANT OPERATORS 

Experience leads the Toledo (Ohio) Railways & Light Com- 
pany to believe, it was said by W. E. East before the Ohio 
Electric Light Association, that the best way to educate power- 
plant operators is to make arrangements to let them conduct their 
own educational work. It is believed best to have meetings at 
the plant when the men are off duty and to pay the men for the 
time thus occupied if necessary to secure full attendance. The 
classes should be run on a club basis. It has been learned that if 
a group of men from the ''front office" try to initiate a movement 
for the benefit of the plant men the whole plan will be viewed 
with suspicion. So educational work must proceed from the in- 
side out, not from the out»side in. The part of the company's 
officials and department heads in this work should be to make 
the operators feel the need of educational activities and then to 
let them take it up among themselves, helping them, of course, 
if they desire hel]\ l)ut never tryinu' to force assistance upon 
them. 

It is also believed that such abstract studies as ai-itlinietic, 



36 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

physics, electricity and mechanical drawing have no place in 
these meetings. Men who wish to take such subjects will avail 
themselves of other opportunities to learn them. The real prov- 
ince of the power-plant club is to take up problems of ordinary 
operation. Questions arise daily as to the best methods of operat- 
ing stokers, boilers, condensers, etc. At a weekly get-together 
meeting the club can handle these topics. A fireman, for ex- 
ample, may have ideas of his own, based on his experience, as to 
how to operate his stokers. The boss may have told him to run 
his stokers in a way that seems quite wrong, but if he is the right 
sort of a fireman he will be willing to learn that he is wrong 
through discussion in the weekly meetings. 

Meetings appear to be most successful when the program in- 
cludes discussion and study of only one piece of apparatus. A 
good plan is to have some one previously appointed to give a de- 
scription of the apparatus illustrated with blueprints and cata- 
logs. A question box should be established and used. If man- 
ufacturers' rules pertaining to operation of the apparatus are 
available, they should be read. Then the meeting should be 
thrown open for discussion by every one from the ashman to the 
boss. Material and literature from manufacturers should be 
preserved to form a reference library for the club. 

Employees of the Toledo company have such a club. It is 
known as the Water Street Boiler-Room Club, because its mem- 
bership consists of practically every boiler-room operator at the 
Water Street generating station. Mr, Washburn, the boiler- 
room fireman, was instrumental in organizing it, and the men 
have supported it enthusiastically, electing him president. All 
suggestions are acted on by the club before the reports of those 
suggestions which seem worth while are submitted by the club 
president to the superintendent of production. The club, in gen- 
eral, works along the lines discussed above, although it also en- 
gages in some social activities. While the club is still young, 
successful results thus far indicate that it will serve to promote 
general welfare of the men and the company. 

Other Correlated Activities Also Important. In addition to 
the boiler-room club, the employees and the Toledo company par- 
ticipate in other educational activities. One of these is the joint 
section of four national engineering societies, the National Elec- 
tric Light Association, the American Gas Institution, the Amer- 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 37 

ican Electric Railway Association and the National District Heat- 
ing Association. The joint section was organized for the edu- 
cational improvement of its members and to foster good fellow- 
ship through social events. It has conducted a number of 
weekly evening classes in arithmetic, algebra, electricity and me- 
chanical drawing. Day classes have sometimes been held for 
night shifts. The company has paid for instructors and fur- 
nished the meeting room. The classes have been conducted on 
the same principle as classes in grade schools. On the whole, 
the w^ork has been successful in teaching general subjects, and 
the joint section is largely responsible for other educational work 
w^hich has since been started. As a further means of providing 
men with opportunities for general education the company pays 
three-fourths of the cost of a correspondence-school course if an 
employee completes the course. 

Another plan that was used for a time to teach practical topics 
was the ''station-operating class." As a part of this plan a 
course of study was laid out and speakers were assigned various 
topics as follows: 

Introductory meeting ; outline and discussion of work planned ; 
fuels and combustion ; furnaces and stokers ; boilers ; coal and ash 
handling system ; draft systems, natural and mechanical : feed- 
water purifiers and heaters ; superheaters, steam piping and aux- 
iliaries ; testing and measuring apparatus, and description of the 
Acme powder station. East Toledo. 

A number of these talks were illustrated. This class was well 
attended and considerable interest was aroused. The class was 
considered in that respect very successful. However, in another 
way this class was not successful in that it did not reach the 
large body of men it was intended to interest. The men who 
should have been present, the plant operators, were not there in a 
sufficiently large proportion, and the ones that were present 
would not partake in the discussion. In fact, most of the op- 
erators who came did not seem to feel at home and failed to get 
into the game as it was hoped they would. 

Personal training is also being given to the firemen in coTinec- 
tion with combustion tests which are run by the results depart- 
ment. These tests are made for the double purpose of checking 
up the accuracy of the boiler-flow meters, draft-gage settings, 
etc., and also to enable the firemen to become familiar with the 



38 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

use of these instruments. The man who is running the tests and 
the fireman get together, and the tester tells the fireman that he 
wants to get the fire as hot as possible. He then shows the fire- 
man what his boilers are doing, provided the boilers are equipped 
with meters, and they set out to improve conditions, if possible. 
Readings are taken of draft, boiler output, air flow, analysis of 
flue gases, stack temperature, etc., and the fireman is informed 
of all these readings as they are taken. Then as conditions are 
improved the results are pointed out to the fireman and he is 
shown how his boiler meter will guide him in his every-day opera- 
tion of the fires and enable him to obtain the best results at all 
times. As an incentive to the fireman to make good records, 
methods calculated to inspire rivalry are pursued. 

At the Water Street station the company also has a fireman's 
instructor, whose duties are to break in all new firemen and to 
teach them to make full use of all the boiler instruments. This 
man also supervises all the fires on all special tests and in that 
way keeps in touch with all the testing work which is carried on 
in the boiler room. 

In conclusion, the company believes that much good can be 
done in an educational way along all three lines ; that is, general 
work, which takes up the fundamental subjects ; the special 
classes, which include the operators' clubs, and the personal work, 
which is intended to give individual instruction. However, it is 
believed that the most successful endeavor and the one most 
profitable to the company is the operators' club. From experi- 
ence that appears to be the best place to start. After this club is 
in full operation the demand for the more academic classes will 
become greater and the personal work will become easier and will 
accomplish more. 

METHOD FOR MAINTAINING PLANT EFFICIENCY 

Because of the efficiency measured in kilowatt-hours at switch 
board per unit of fuel oil used varies with the temperature of 
the condenser circulating water, the Houston (Tex.) Lighting & 
Power Company was obliged to find some method of comparison 
for informing the station engineer whether or not he was operat- 
ing the plant to obtain the best results. The water is obtained 
from a bayou which is a sluggish stream and which becomes very 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 



39 



warm during the summer months. The variation in efificiency is 
a function of the circulating water and, according to Frank G. 
Frost, general superintendent of the compan}^ the summer and 
winter loads have been very carefulh' analj'zed to get average 



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50 54 56 eZ ee 70 74 7(9 82 66 90 94 98 102 lOti 
Condenser Circulating Water- Inlet Tempenoture, Degrees Rahrpnhett 

-CURVK OF PoWKR-PlANT KITRIKNCY USKI) AS STANDAKI) 



values. From the steam curve of the turbines a ' ' bogie ' ' curve, 
as seen in Fig. 8, has been worked out whicli gives the rela- 
tion between the station outputs with variable circulating-water 
temperatures. The percentage that each day's results are above 
or below this curve is posted in the station turbine room so that 
the operators at all times are familiar with the actual economies 
of the station. Fuel-oil and electric meters are read hourly. 



RESULTS OBTAINED BY USE OF FUEL-OIL REGULATOR 

The Houston Electric Company of Houston, Tex., has installed 
in its plant a device for automatically regulating the amount of 
fuel oil fed to the furnaces under its boilers. The regulator is 
arranged to operate with the increasing and decreasing load. In 
fact, the device is more than merely a fuel regulator. It is an 
automatic draft, fuel oil and injector-steam regulator which ab- 
solutely controls the three essentials to boiler operation when 
crude oil is used for fuel. 

When a sudden load is placed on the main generator of the 
plant it will naturally cause a drop in the main steam-pressure 
line. This causes a drop in the steam line which is used for 



40 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

spraying the oil over the grate, as steara for this purpose is ob- 
tained through a reducing valve from the main line. This re- 
duction in pressure causes the regulator to function. When this 
regulator acts, it performs three duties simultaneously : First, 
it supplies more fuel oil to the grates ; second, a greater quantity 
of steam is released to cause the oil to spray properly, and, third, 
the draft over the fire is increased. These three operations make 
the steam come quickly up to standard practice. 

The point at which the regulator will function has been se- 
lected by adjusting it according to the steam pressure desired 
and also taking into the account the CO2 record produced by a 
Hayes automatic COg recorder. This recorder is interconnected 
so that it can be used to take readings from any of the four 
boilers in the boiler room. 

An average of the oil consumed from November, 1916, to 
August, 1917, showed that the plant used 2.1169 lb. of oil per 
kilowatt-hour. During September, October and November, 1917, 
since the CO2 recorder and the automatic regulator have been 
placed in service, the oil consumption has amounted to 2.010 lb. 
per kilowatt-hour. These figures show that the automatic opera- 
tion has effected a saving of 0.1009 lb. of oil per kilowatt-hour. 
This indicates a saving of 4.95 per cent in the amount of fuel 
used. Since the company's fuel bill in the average month is 
$3,735, it may be seen that the saving effected is 4.95 per cent 
of $3,735, or $184. Since the automatic devices cost only $390, 
it will be seen that one will virtually pay for itself at the end of 
two months. 

SAVE COAL BY WATCHING RADIATION LOSSES 

Loss of heat from uncovered or poorly covered steam piping or 
equipment is more important, Austen Bolam points out, than it 
seems on first thought, because the boiler and furnace efficiency 
must be taken into account. In other words, if condensation 
occurs it means that the equivalent loss is equal to the superheat 
plus the latent heat divided by the efficiency. If the condensate 
is not drained back into the boiler, the heat required to raise the 
water to the boiling point is also lost. If the efficiency of steam 
generation is low, say 50 per cent, it means that the actual loss 
is really twice the apparent loss. 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 



41 



<- -Furnace Los£ 


> — 


H Temp Loss [^Condensation 


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1 




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200 400 600 



800 1000 
B. t. u. 



leoo 1400 leoo isoo 



Fig. — Components of Total Loss Resulting from Uncovered Pipes 
Through Condensation of 1 lb. of Steam at 150 lb. Presslt^e 

Many steam plants have their main steam lines covered with in- 
sulation of some kind, but it is a very common practice to omit the 
coverings on valves, flanges, drips, feed pipes and other minor 
fittings, often because of a fancied difficulty in providing easily 
removable coverings. They are also great heat wasters, however. 
The amount of heat, for instance, wasted by one pair of uncov- 
ered 10-in. (25.4-cm.) flanges will probably amount to a ton of 
coal a year. Removable covers are easily made with a little fine 
chickenwire and some canvas, burlap or muslin, covered with 
plastic insulating material. They can be made in halves or sec- 
tions and held in place by wire wrapping. Boiler tops, ends, 
drums, breechings and walls all need proper insulation. In the 
latter instance it will protect against air infiltration as well as 
from heat loss. A thickness of from 2 in. to 3 in. (5.1 cm. to 
7.6 cm.) of covering is the least that should be used. 

Writing ^ several years ago. Professor Mac^NIillan said : ' ' The 
saving due to the use of proper covering is so great that . . . the 
cost per year rather than the first cost should be the only consid- 



A 

■Or 
O 

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2000 E?00 2400 Z<dO0 2600 3000 5200 
B.t. u. Loss per Square Foot of Pipe 
Surface per Minure at 100 lb. Pressure 

Fig. 10 — Relative Efficiencies of Four Brands of Pipe Covering 



eration. " In another place he said: "It is a deplorable fact 
that few steam lines at the present time are provided with thick 
enough coverings for the greatest net saving. ' ' Conditions have 
not changed appreciably since then, as lack of knowledge regard- 

'i^ Proceedm(js A, 8. M. E., December, 1015. 



42 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



ing the insulating values of different substances and the extensive 
amount of guessing at the thickness of covering required indicate. 
Coal consumption is responsible for from 55 per cent to 75 per 
cent of the total operating expense of the average power plant or 
central station. Therefore economizing in any portion of this 
enormous consumption is well worth the effort. 

Fallacy of Rule-of-Thumb Methods. In some cases engineers 
have decided on the thickness of pipe covering to use by feeling 
the covering after one thickness has been applied. If too hot, an- 
other layer is applied, and so on. Rule-of-thumb methods like 
this should be abandoned, since no two hands sense temperature 
alike and the hand can bear a temperature of 150 deg. Fahr. 
(65.60 C.) without discomfort. To illustrate the loss which can 
occur if only the touch test is applied for determining insulation 
efficiency suppose the steam pressure is 100 lb. (7 kg.). The tem- 
perature of the steam, without superheat, would be 327 deg. 
Fahr. (163.9 C), so that with a temperature as high as 150 deg. 
at the outside surface of the covering the loss would be 40 per 
cent of the initial heat in the steam^ most of it preventable by a 
covering of sufficient thickness. 

Unfortunately there is extensive misinformation regarding the 



<0 

SI 

o 

c 

c 



Standard 



6 '■ 

^ Double 
jD Standard 

c Double 1^ 



1200 



I4O0 



\<bOO 



ZAOO Z<bOO 



1600 eOOO 2200 
B.t. u. Loss 'per Minute 

Fig. 11— Relative Losses with Different Thicknesses of Covering 
Temperature different between air and steam, 300 deg. Fahr.; size of 
pipe, 3 in. Data from Armstrong Cork & Insulation Company. 

heat-insulating values of different materials, as a number of en- 
gineers seem to think that asbestos is a heat insulator, whereas it 
is a very poor material for this purpose except as a binder. 
There are many so-called pipe coverings on the market that are 
worthless for anything more than the temperature used for or- 
dinary house-heating, but they are being used in many large in- 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 



43 



stallations because tliey seem inexpensive and after they are on 
the pipes they look well. That tliere are no established stand- 
ards of insulation practice is due largely to the fact that the cov- 
erings are commonly bought on a price-per-foot basis instead of 
on a cost-per-year basis. Competition between different makers 
is severe, and the temptation to unscrupulous competitors to cut 
prices at the expense of quality is obvious. . 

Durability and Efficiency Essential. On the other hand, the 
highest-priced insulation is by no means necessarily the most 
efficient. Without some knowledge of the theory of heat insula- 
tion comparison of different grades of material is impossible. 
The value of a heat-insulating material depends entirely on two 
co-essentials — efficiency and durability. Price is a minor con- 
sideration. If a covering will save its own cost in the first few 
years and will continue doing this as long as the plant lasts, it is 



B= Covering 
C= Airspace 
D= Outer Cover 
E= Thermome+er ... 




Fig. 12 — Simple Outfit for Testing Heat Losses fro^[ Pipes 
Removable ends are provided to fit difl'erent-size pipes. Tlie ends and 
peripliery are covered with 80 per cent majinesia to prevent escape of heat. 
From the thermometer readings obtained the heat loss can be calculated. 



a good investment. If it falls below this standard, it is dear at 
any price. There are some materials that will show great effi- 
ciency for a short period, but begin to deteriorate rapidly. 

No pipe covering is 100 per cent efficient, but there are some 
that show an efficiency of from 80 to 90 per cent, the actual 



44 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

figures varying according to the thickness, etc. It is quite pos- 
sible to reach and maintain the larger figure by proper selection 
and application. In order to set up a standard of comparison, 
what is perhaps the best-known and most universally used in- 
sulating material will be considered — 85 per cent magnesia — be- 
cause it complies almost entirely with all the requirements of a 
perfect heat resistant both in structure and in efficiency. This 
material consists of an almost pure crystalline carbonate of mag- 
nesia combined with a proportion of mineral fiber (asbestos) to 
give it the needful structural strength. Its structure is minutely 
porous, the crystals of magnesia embedding between their walls 
an extremely large percentage of dead air. In fact, these air 
cells comprise by far the greater part of the material, each one 
hermetically sealed and so minute that millions of them are con- 
tained in a single square foot of the insulation. 

A necessary consequence is that the substance itself is ex- 
tremely light in weight relative to other substances. A heays^, 
dense material cannot possibly be a good insulation, nor on the 
contrary can one whose structure is so light that the air spaces 
visibly make up the greater part of the bulk. The general rule 
may be laid down that large air spaces permit circulation and 
therefore cannot have real insulation value. 

Owing to the tremendous desiccating influence of the long- 
continued heat on the insulation, organic substances are neces- 
sarily barred. Otherwise there are many materials of this class 
that would make efficient insulating coverings. 

Taking bare pipe as a standard for comparing radiation losses,^ 
it can be easily calculated that from each square foot there is 
roughly a heat loss of 51.7 B.t.u. per degree difference of temper- 
ature per hour, or with a steam of 150 lb. (10.5 kg.) a net loss 
of at least IV2 lb. coal per square foot of pipe per hour, or 36 
lb. per twenty-four hours. This loss is continuous as long as 
there is steam in the pipe and is equivalent to more than 7 tons 
per year per square foot of pipe. This is an extreme instance, 
but in so far as it is the practice to allow any kind of steam pipe 
or feed pipe to remain uncovered, so far do these extreme figures 

1 Steam pressures and superheats such as are used in ordinary central- 
station and power-plant practice are considered. These remarks are only 
partly applicable to heating or other low-pressure work, or to the use of fur- 
nace or other forms of heat reaction. 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 45 

apply. A very few feet of uncovered or badly covered pipe will 
therefore waste considerable coal. 

''Standard" thickness covering is intended for pressures up to 
100 lb. (7 kg.) only. Above that point extra coverings are re- 
quired up to the maximum temperature of about 600 deg. Pahr. 
(315 deg. C), which represents the highest practical tempera- 
ture in modern steam practice. Figures taken from the standard 
specifications of the Magnesia Association follow: 

Steam Pressure (Lb.) Tliickness of Coating 

Up to 100 Standard. 

100 to 150 Double standard. 

Over 150 3 in. 

With superheat 3^4 in. 

Any engineer can readily compare his own insulation with these 
standards. If it falls short of these thicknesses, he is probably 
wasting a good deal of valuable heat. 

Heat Insulation from an Investment Point of View. When 
the late Henry G. Scott made what is perhaps the only series of 
actual tests ever conducted by a user of insulating materials, he 
pointed out that the following factors should be taken into con- 
sideration in selecting heat insulation if satisfactory service is to 
be expected: 

(1) Investment in covering; (2) cost of coal required to sup- 
ply lost heat; (3) 5 per cent interest on capital invested in 
boilers and stokers rendered idle through having to supply lost 
heat; (4) guaranteed life of covering, and (5) thickness of cov- 
ering. He further says: "It is apparent that the covering 
which shows a minimum total cost under the first three headings 
is the best covering to adopt, for the loss of heat at the end of 
ten years may readily cost more than three times as much as the 
first cost of the covering." That his conclusions were justified 
is indicated by the fact that the original (85 per cent magnesia) 
coverings selected by him are still in use. 

In considering the investment value of an insulation durability 
naturally assumes importance. It goes without saying that the 
most durable covering will pay best, provided that it is equal 
in initial efficiency to others under consideration. This point de- 
mands greater attention than it often receives, because once the 
pipes are covered it may be years before they are disturbed again. 
A poor covering may have lost its efficiency in a short while, but 



46 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

because there is nothing to show this externally it will continue 
to waste heat for many years or even until the pipes are worn out. 

Following is a simple formula which will assist in determining 
the most economical covering for any given class of service, 
whether temporary or permanent (c — a/h)!) = d. In this equa- 
tion c is the value of the coal saved per year, a is the cost of the 
covering, h is its life in years, d is the gross return on the invest- 
ment in the covering. 

Thus taking the cost of 100 ft. (30.4 m.) of covering as $80, 
assuming its life as fifteen years, and considering that during 
that time 25 tons of coal at $4 per ton are saved per year owing 
to the covering, the gross return on the investment will be 
(100 — 80/15) 15 = $1,420 per 100 ft. of covering. 

For comparison consider the cheapest kind of pipe covering, 
costing $40, with an estimated life of five years. Assume that 
the coal saving is 60 per cent of that obtained with the better 
covering mention in the preceding paragraph. Then the gross 
return will be (60 — 40/5)5 = $260, instead of $1,420 with the 
better covering. 

In applying this formula to actual practice it must be borne 
in mind that what is meant by ' ' lifetime ' ' is the efficient lifetime 
of the covering, during which it will give its maximum service — 
and not merely the time it will stay on the pipes without falling 
off. 

HOW TO AVOID EXTRAVAGANT USE OF BOILERS 

Curves plotted to show the results of operation in both the tur- 
bine room and the boiler room are used by the engineers and 
managers of an Indiana plant as a check against extravagant 
operation of boilers. The curve chart is arranged so that the 
number of boilers in service and the load on the plant in kilowatts 
are plotted against time. By using the same abscissas for both 
curves and by choosing a proper ordinate scale the curves fall 
very near together if proper operation is obtained. Any varia- 
tion from normal operation is at once noticeable, owing to the 
wide divergence which the lines show. AVhen this occurs the 
manager generally demands an explanation from the chief of 
the boiler room. There must always be a good reason for carry- 
ing more boilers than the chart indicates are necessary. 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 



47 



Data from which these curves are plotted are collected sepa- 
rately by the man in charge of the boiler room and the man in 




5 4 5 e T 6 9 10 II 12 
P.M. 

Fkj. 13 — Boiler Curve Should Nearly Coincide with Kw. Load 

charge of the engine room. The relation of the two curves to 
each other is therefore known to the boiler-room chief only after 
he has turned in his data. This precludes any possibility of get- 
ting ''doctored" figures into the report. To assist the boiler- 
room chief in holding just the right number of boilers on the line, 
or in readiness to go on, it was of course necessary to place in 
the boiler room a totalizing wattmeter to indicate the station 
load. 

CONSERVING OIL IN BOILER ROOM 

On the eccentrics which are part of chain-grate stoker drive, 
on stoker bearings and on economizer bearings, the Topeka 
(Kan.) Edison Company is using bottle oilers of the type manu- 
factured by the Nathan Manufacturing Company and distributed 
through the Vacuum Oil Company. These devices are small 
bottles with tight-fitting plungers through which oil is obliged to 
leak to the bearings which it lubricates. This scheme of oiling 
is especially satisfactory for bearings which have been taking a 
large amount of low-grade oil and which can be converted to use 
a smaller amount of high-grade oil. 

At this plant, it was formerly the practice to fill the oil cups on 
the stoker eccentrics twice a day. Moreover, it was always diffi- 
cult to get the firemen to attend to this work. With the bottle 
oilers it is only necessary to renew the supply of oil once every 
two weeks, although the bottles are inspected by the firemen on 



48 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

each shift. While a higher grade of oil is used in lubricating 
the bearings with the bottle oilers, only one-fourteenth as much 
oil is required as was used under the former system. 

EMERGENCY OPERATION OF BROKEN CHAIN GRATE 

An emergency arose recently in a small Western plant wherein 
it was necessary to operate two 400-hp. chain-grate stokers which 
had been taken out of service owing to holes in the grate as large 
as a man's hand. To permit operation under these conditions 
wooden barrel staves were placed over the holes as they appeared 
in front of the hopper. The staves prevented the coal sifting 
through the grates until they were nearly burned through, at 
which time the coal had coked enough to support itself. This 
scheme permitted operating the grates satisfactorily until the 
repair parts arrived. 

FUEL SAVED BY REPAIRING LEAKS IN BOILER 

SETTINGS 

An actual saving of fuel can easily be accomplished if a small 
amount of time is given to inspecting and patching leaks that 
occur in boiler settings. Heating and cooling of furnace walls 
is continuous and cracks are bound to form. Boiler settings 
should be inspected at least once a month with a candle flame to 
find the leaks, especial attention being paid to the joints around 
the fire and clean-out doors and around the breeching. These 
leaks should be marked and filled with asbestos, rope or old pipe 
covering. They should then be sealed over with a flexible cement 
made of 10 lb. (4.5 kg.) of asphalt, 10 lb. magnesia-asbestos, 10 
lb. Portland cement and 1/2 ^al. (1.9 1.) benzine. The cement is 
made by heating the asphalt until fluid and then removing it 
from the fire and mixing it with the benzine. This mixture is 
then stirred in the cement and magnesia-asbestos that is already 
mixed and heated to 300 deg. Fahr. High-temperature surfaces 
to be repaired should have a covering that has a greater propor- 
tion of cement and magnesia. These leaks should also be in- 
spected often, as they are apt to leak again. A saving of 10 to 
25 per cent of fuel may easily be made by following up these 
leaks. These suggestions were given by the Jones Stoker Com- 
pany in its official house organ. 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 



49 



BRAZING PIPE JOINTS TO STOP STEAM LEAKS 

One of the jobs that require careful attention when steam- 
measuring instruments are being installed is that of connecting 
the joints in tlie small pipes leading from the steam mains to the 
instruments. i\Iany companies which are now installing boiler- 
room instruments so as to obtain an accurate check on the efficient 
use of coal discover that unless their pipes are carefully installed 
they are liable to become leaky at the joints. The Iowa Railway 
& Light Company of Cedar Rapids, la., when it installed addi- 
tional instruments in its steam plant brazed all of the joints in 
the small connecting pipes with the effect that no trouble has 
been encountered and that the instruments give correct readings. 

REDUCING COSTS BY SOFTENING BOILER-FEED 

WATER 

Unfortunately, scale cannot be blown off the tubes like soot, 
it being necessar}^ in a great many cases to chisel or turbine out 



normal Path for Wafer 



Path of Head Wash 



Pafh of Back Wash 




^pgy,^^Wff-.^ 




-Orain 



Fig. 14 — Arrangement of Water Softening and Purifying Tanks Used 

BY One Central Station 

the deposit. The question is how much fuel scale really wastes 
and whether the waste is sufficient to warrant the investment in 
a water-softening plant to prevent the formation of scale. 



50 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

Previous Published Data on Savings. Published experi- 
mental data on this subject are not in great abundance. Be- 
tween 1898 and 1908 the engineering experiment station of the 
University of Illinois ran a series of tests on a locomotive and on 
individual boiler tubes in order to throw some light on the sub- 
ject, publishing the results in its Bulletin 11 (1908). The loco- 
motive, taken from the Illinois Central Eailroad, was run with 
about %4 in. (1.19 mm.) scale in it for about twenty-one 
months. Then the engine was cleaned and run for two days 
clean. The loss, based on equivalent water per pound coal evap- 
orated from and at 212 deg. Fahr., amounted to 9.6 per cent. 
The individual boiler-tube tests with scale up to Vs in. (3.175 
mm.) thick showed widely varying losses up to 12 per cent, de- 
pending on the mechanical structure of the scale and the thick- 
ness. 

An article by H. G. D. Nutting, published in the Electrical 
World (Volume 66, No. 23, page 1257), described a water-soft- 
ener installed in a central station in Wisconsin. The effect of the 
treatment was as follows: "The coal bill has been reduced 18 
per cent of its former amount, based on the same load. The coal 
bill for July, the second month of use of the water softener was 
$514 less than for May, when the softener was not in use — i.e., 
based on the same output. ' ' 

Railroad Experience. Railroads are the largest users of fuel 
in boilers for the generation of steam, and their experience is 
most valuable to illustrate the various operating losses due to 
scale. In 1905 the American Railway Engineering and Mainte- 
•nance of Way Association, which has a standing committee on 
water service, issued a report ^ on " Comparison of the Cost of 
Installing and Operating Water-Softening Plants, with the Bene- 
fits Derived from Their Use." From the experience of about 
forty railroads with water-treatment plants it selected several as 
furnishing the most authentic records, each of them having in- 
stalled at least fifteen or more water-softening plants up to that 
time. 

A summary of the data given in this report follows: 

The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway installed water softeners 
in 1903 on divisions in Kansas and Colorado. In December, 1902, it 
had 456 locomotive-boiler failures from leaking. By using softened 

1 Volume 6, 1905, pages 597-611. 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 51 

water failures from this cause were redupod to only sixty-eight in De- 
cember, 1903, and twenty-eight in July, 1904. The average annual 
reduction in such failures due to water softening was 74 per cent. 

As regards saving of flues, the locomotives made 363,302 miles (about 
584,500 km.) more in the year ended July, 1904, than in the year 
previous and the store department issued 109,937 linear feet (about 
33,500 m.) of flues less than the year before, which was a saving of 
about 20 per cent in flues. The saving in the labor of boilermakers for 
repairs for the same time was $7,000. 

The Chicago & Northwestern installed seventeen water softeners in 
1903 on its Iowa Division, and these took care of all the natural hard- 
water stations in the division. The saving in the cost of labor for 
boilermakers was 36 per cent. The number of failures due to leaks was 
583 from August, 1902, to June, 1903. The corresponding number from 
August, 1903, to June, 1904, was only 120, representing a reduction in 
failures of 79 per cent. There was also a heavier ton-mileage in 1903 
than in 1902, the increase being 7 per cent. The coal saving was 4.2 per 
cent, since in 1902 the tonnage was handled by 28.7 lb. (13 kg.) of coal 
per 100 ton-miles and in 1903 by 27.5 lb. (12.47 kg.) of coal per 100 ton- 
miles. 

Furthermore 7 per cent more tonnage was handled by fewer engines, 
the saving being Ave engines out of 159, or 3.1 per cent. 

Besides the above, there are a number of benefits difficult to evaluate 
but extremely important as having a bearing on power-plant practice. 
For instance, there was a saving in time for engines to make their trips, 
due to fewer failures and therefore less expense for overtime labor and 
fewer delays for repairs on the road. 

The results of eight years' use of softened water on the Southern 
Pacific Railroad system show a saving of 50 per cent in the expense of 
boiler repairs. 

The average monthly locomotive mileage on the Union Pacific system 
has increased 27 per cent since the installation of the water-softening 
plants. Freight-train statistics also show "an increase in ton-miles per 
pound of coal of 7^/^ per cent and a decrease in cost of repairs per loco- 
motive mile of 34 per cent." The saving in repairs can be seen from 
the increased life of flues. "The average life of a set of flues in pas- 
senger locomotives with hard water was six months; since softening the 
water the average life is two and one-half years." 

The committee's report in conclusion attempts to describe the general 
w^ater conditions under which water softeners would produce savings 
by stating that "it would be a benefit to soften water used in locomo- 
tive boilers that contains 15 or more grains per gallon of hardening 
matter, or even less than 15 grains, if the hardening matter consists 
largely of sulphate of lime." 



52 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



There are several cases which have been experienced, how- 
ever, which illustrate the possibility of severe operating losses 
with a water having a hardness far below the committee 's limit of 
15 grains. Not so long ago the chief operating engineer of one 
of our largest chemical manufacturing companies described the 
conditions existing in one of its mills using the Delaware River 
water, having a hardness of between 3 and 4 grains per gallon in 
its eight 500-hp. horizontal water-tube boilers. The engineer of 




hard 
rfater 
Inkf 



■■.:'•'','•■ 6 rare I ' ". 



Soft 

Wafer 

Outlet 




Fig. 15 — Exchange- Silicate Type 
OF Water Softener 



the plant showed tube charts which gave the average life of the 
tubes as six to eight weeks. The boilers were in constant danger 
of shut-down owing to tubes suddenly failing, and in several 
instances there was serious loss of life. The condition was due 
entirely to scale, which seemed to collect in sufficient quantity in 
tubes to prevent circulation and so cause overheating, blistering 
and bagging of the tubes. This same condition is probablj^ fa- 
miliar to other users of boiler-feed waters just as soft as the Dela- 
ware River wherever the boilers are operated at high overloads 
continuously. A boiler operating at 200 per cent rating with a 
4-grain water has just as much scale deposited in it in th^ same 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 53 

period of time as a similar boiler operating at 100 per cent rat- 
ing on an 8-grain water. 

Benefits Realized by Other Central Stations. That the in- 
stallation of a water softener is warranted even with very soft 
natural waters is borne out by two other instances : A central 
station in Brooklj-n, N. Y., installed a water-softening plant to 
obtain water of zero hardness three years ago on the city supply 
of only 2 to 3 grains per gallon of hardness. The boilers (about 
forty of various types) develop a total of about 25,000 hp. and 
are run at high overloads during the peak periods. The use of 
the zero water has kept the boilers in such condition that these 
extreme peak ratings can be maintained with reliability and se- 
curity at all times. 

By installing the water softener this central power plant un- 
doubtedly saved an investment for additional spare boilers w^hich 
would be necessary to take up the load quickly in case of failure 
of some of the units in operation and actually saved about 50 
per cent of the original investment in the cost of boiler repairs 
and the large amounts of soda ash formerly used directly in the 
boilers. 

In a large textile plant at Bridgeport, Pa., using the Schuyl- 
kill River for its water supply (hardness, about 6 to 8 grains per 
gallon) the results of the first four months' run on ^'zero water," 
as compared with the same months of the previous year, showed a 
monthly saving in coal of 100 tons to 200 tons, compared with a 
consumption on hard water of 600 tons to 800 tons. The boiler 
plant consists of ten 150-hp. horizontal return-tubular boilers, the 
total horsepower developed being 1700. The same months in 
both years were chosen because the load was approximately the 
same during both periods. 

It is interesting to note that the saving increased steadily dur- 
ing the four months in question because the scale was not com- 
pletely removed when the water softener was started in opera- 
tion. During the first month the saving was 102 tons, second 
month 166 tons, third month 208 tons, fourth month 216 tons. 
The soft water removed the old scale gradually, and the decreas- 
ing amount of scale present caused a corresponding decrease in 
coal used. 

The old standards and ideals adopted for the quality of feed 
water are changing. The practice of maltreating boilers by us- 



54 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

ing any water in them, then ' ' doping ' ' the boilers with some com- 
pound or soda ash and periodically cleaning the boilers with 
chisel and hammer, is a thing of the past. With boilers costing 
to-day $35 to $40 per horsepower to install they are worthy of the 
fine care and attention constantly given to engines. With the 
present practice of running boilers, especially in central sta- 
tions, at 200 per cent to 300 per cent rating, and with the neces- 
sity for absolute reliability and certainty, the need for the best 
water with the least possible scaling contents is rapidly becoming 
realized. 

The station operating con mittee of the N. E. L. A., in describ- 
ing the results obtained from a water softener in a large central 
steam company's plant in Manhattan operating on New York 
City supply of 2 to 3 grains per gallon, has this to say : 

The results obtained develop a fact that is of great interest — that 
scale will form where boilers are operated at such high rating — 200 
per cent — if the water contains a hardness such as is usually obtained 
in the average water-softening plant. That is, boilers will not be free 
from scale if fed with a water of 4 grains hardness ; therefore a greater 
refinement must be obtained to meet this condition. The demand for 
200 per cent of rating is growing as more and more plants are being 
built to operate at that rating, and greater care will have to be taken to 
put into such boilers water containing the least possible hardness. 

Features of Various Systems of Water Softening 
Lime-Soda Type. — In general there are two broad types of water 
softeners to consider. One is the lime-soda type, the other is the ex- 
change-silicate type. The former consists of adding to the water lime 
and soda ash in fixed amounts depending on the chemical analysis of 
the raw water, allowing the dosed water, thoroughly mixed with the 
chemicals, to settle in large tanks, and then clarifying the settled water. 
This may be done with the water in a cold condition or by using a heater 
in advance so that the chemical reactions take place with hot water. 
The heater softeners permit of a smaller settling tank than the cold 
treatment, and the softened water if properly treated may have about 
3 grains per gallon of hardness instead of the cold softened water of 
about 5 grains. But unless there is sufficient exhaust steam available to 
produce a temperature of over 200 deg. Fahr., there is no economy in 
the heater softener over the cold type because of the rapid radiation of 
heat from the large exposed area of the surface of the hot settling tank 
and separate hot filter. Furthermore, the washing of the filter and 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 55 

blowing oft' of sludge from the hot settling tauk causes considerable loss 
of heat in the hot water wasted down the sewer. 

The cold type of lime-soda softener may either be intermittent or 
continuous. The former consists of two or more settling tanks and 
filters with one tank being filled, dosed with the correct charge of chem- 
icals, and then agitated in order to mix thoroughly while the other tank 
or tanks are settling and being used. The advantage of this type is 
that with waters of variable chemical composition the charge of chem- 
icals may be suited to each tankf ul correctly. But the intermittent type 
naturally takes up a relatively large space and the foundations are ex- 
pensive. 

The continuous type feeds the chemical continuously into the water, 
which enters the settling tank at a constant rate, settling and then 
filtering, the water passing from chemical feed to filter without stop- 
ping. This type is as responsive as the intermittent with the average 
water supply where the chemical composition changes gradually, so 
that by analyzing the raw and treated water once a day the correct 
charges may be prepared for the day. 

With all types of lime-soda water softeners the important things 
to watch are the size of the settling tank, the size and type of the filter 
and the allowable causticity in the treated water. In competition the 
size of the main parts naturally determines the cost, and unless these 
sizes are specified, competitive bids cannot be compared. It is just as 
necessary to check up a manufacturer's specification of a water softener 
as, for example those of a pump. With lime-soda softeners it is abso- 
lutely necessary to have a sufficient reaction and settling time to permit 
the chemical reaction to take place. If the settling period ^ is cut 
down, these chemical reactions take place after the water leaves the 
water softener, and clog up heaters, piping and boilers with the result- 
ing precipitates. 

Secondly, the filter should be of quartz and not of excelsior or some 
other medium. Sand grains catch the precipitate best and can be eas- 
ily washed by reversing the flow. The filters should be designed large 
enough to permit a low rate of filtration,^ otherwise the precipitates may 
slip through. 

As regards the allowable hydroxide causticity in the softened water, 
a limit should be set for this of about 2 grains per gallon, expressed as 
CaCOg. If no limit is set, it means that the water may be overdosed 
to get the guaranteed hardness. This overdosing is expensive with soda 

1 The city of Columbus allows eighteen hours' settling in the municipal 
water-softener. 

•"J In tlie city of Columbus a rate of 2 gal. per square foot per minute is 
allowed. 



56 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



ash at 3 to 4 cents per pound, and a high causticity leads to other diffi- 
culties in boiler operation. 

Exchange-Silicate Process. — The exchange-silicate process of water 
softening is a radical departure from the lime-soda type. The water 
is passed through a bed of granular insoluble sodium-aluminate-silicate, 
and all of the calcium and magnesium are exchanged for sodium. The 
exchange silicate takes the calcium and magnesium and in exchange 
gives its sodium to the water. The reactions are direct exchanges just 
as take place with soda ash in the lime-soda water softener. But the 
exchange silicate, being insoluble, is present in such high excess that all 
of the hardness is removed and a water of zero hardness results. 

As explained previously, the addition of lime and soda ash reduces 
the hardness to 3 to 5 grains, and a causticity in the treated water re- 
sults from the excess of soluble chemicals which was added to drive the 
reactions to those limits. Perhaps if the excess used and the resulting 
causticity were allowed to go high enough the hardness of the treated 
water might go lower. But with the exchange-silicate method the high 
excess is used and yet no causticity results because the silicate is insol- 



Confrol f/ocrT. Water Le\/el in Settling Tank 

Inlet Raw Wafer Supply 

Inlet Valve. Raw l/i/ater Control 

Raw Water Box 

Water Wheel 

Dividing Box 

Tipping Box 

Drum 

Lift Pipe 

Che. nical Tank 

Stirring Paddles 

Mixing Plate 

Conical Downtake 

Supply to Chemical Tank 

Overflow from Chemical Tank 

r Chemical Mixing Tank 

s Ejector 




Fig. 16 — One Type of Lime- Soda Water Softener 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 57 

uble. That explains why "zero" hardness water is possible by this 
method. The softening filters containing the exchange silicate are 
equipped with water meters, and when the designed capacity of a filter 
has been reached it is shut off and a solution of common salt or brine 
is introduced for about eight hours. This is called the "regeneration" 
period, and the salt solution restores the sodium to the exchange silicates, 
driving out the calcium and magnesium absorbed by the filter bed during 
the previous day's run. This salt is washed out and run to the drain 
in the morning, and the softening filter is then ready for another day's 
run. For continuous twenty-four hours' ser\'ice two units are used in 
alternate service. 

There are some waters, however, which can most economically be 
softened by a combination of the lime pre-treatment followed by the 
exchange-silicate filtration. This combination treatment has been 
strongly developed in England. In the United States also there are 
quite a few combination lime-exchange-silicate plants, especially in the 
Middle West. The advantage of the combination process over the 
single methods is found in large water-softening plants with waters 
containing a high temporary hardness of calcium and magnesium bicar- 
bonates. The lime actually removes the temporary hardness down to 
several grains per gallon and so reduces the total dissolved solids in the 
water. 

With waters of high permanent hardness, however, there is no ad- 
vantage in the combination process because soda ash works by exchange 
on the permanent hardness just as the exchange silicates do. Further- 
more about 3 lb. to 4 lb. (1.36 kg. to 1.82 kg.) of salt is needed for 
regeneration as against 1 lb. (0.45 kg.) of soda ash. With salt at Vs 
cent a pound and soda ash at 3 cents per pound the comparative cost 
of removing permanent hardness by the two processes would be 1% cents 
for the exchange silicate and 3 cents for the soda ash. 

Investment and Operating* Costs. The comparative invest- 
ments in different water-softening systems depend entirely on 
the composition of the water. Lime-soda plants remain fairly 
constant in cost with varying compositions, whereas exchange- 
silicate plants increase in size and cost with increase of hard- 
ness in the raw water. Cost of treatment depends also on the 
water composition and the proportion of temporary and perma- 
nent hardness. The cost of lime treatment alone is about one- 
third to one-half the cost of the corresponding salt for regenera- 
tion, but, as pointed out in the foregoing, the cost of the soda-ash 
treatment is about three times the cost of salt for regeneration. 
In conclusion, a typical case will be analyzed to determine the 



58 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

actual savings that would result from installing a water softener 
without reference to the type used. Take a water of the follow- 
ing composition (same as water in the Bridgeport installation 
mentioned above) : 

Grains 
per Gal. 
Total hardness, as CaCOs =130 p.p.m. = 7.7 

Calcium hardness, as CaCOs = 80 p.p.m. = 4.7 

Magnesium hardness, as CaCOs = 50 p.p.m. = 3.0 
Alkalinity, as CaCOs = 80 p.p.m. = 4.7 

Temporary hardness, as CaCOs = 80 p.p.m. = 4.7 
Permanent hardness, as CaCOs = 50 p.p.m. = 3.0 

Assuming a boiler plant of 3000 hp., consisting of ten boilers 
with no returns using 12,000 gal. (45,400 1.) per hour raw feed 
water, the first cost including foundations and connections would 
be about $20,000. The cost of operation for chemicals would be 
about 3 cents per 1000 gal. (3785 1.). With a coal consumption 
of 1 lb. (0.45 kg.) per 8 lb. (3.62 kg.) of water evaporated, the 
average daily consumption of coal would be about 150 tons. As- 
suming a price for coal at $4 per ton and a saving of 5 per cent 
for fuel, then the fixed and operating charges of water softener 
would be 

288,000 gal. per day X 3 cents = $8.64 = $3,150 

Labor of operation = 500 

Interest and depreciation, at 10 per cent = 2,000 

Total $5,650 

SAVINGS : 

Coal. — 150 tons X 5 per cent = 7^/2 tons per day = 2740 tons 

per year, at $4 =$10,960 

Cleaning boilers. — Assuming that the boilers were formerly 
cleaned six times per year and are now only inspected, six 
cleanings saved, at $30 per boiler, 6 X $30 X $10 = 1.800 

Tube saving and repairs = 1,000 

Total $13,760 

Deduct 5,650 

Net saving $8,110 

Therefore the return on investment = $8,110/20,000 ^ 41 per 
cent, or the plant would be paid for in two and one-half years 
out of the savings. 

If the plant were operating condensing at considerably above 
normal rating, as is usually the case in central stations, the net 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 59 

saving would be much greater and the softener would pay for 
itself more quickly, probably inside a year. This statement is 
based on the assumption that the percentage saving in fuel is the 
same in both cases and does not take into consideration the value 
of having more reliable service, the avoidance of damage from 
bursting tubes, the expense of shut-downs, or the investment 
otherwise required in reserve boilers. Each case should be stud- 
ied individually and the water analyzed by a chemist. 

AVOIDING THE PREVENTABLE SOOT LOSS 

During recent years the boiler room has gradually emerged 
from a position of secondary importance to a primary element 
in the cost of power generation. Boilers have been growing in 
size, combustion rates have increased, and greater loads per unit 
of steam-making surface are being carried. With the operating 
conditions becoming more severe and fuel cost high above the 
normal level of years past, closer scrutiny is being given to all 
factors affecting economy. 

Loss from Soot Formation. Of all the preventable losses, 
that caused by the formation of soot on the fire surfaces of the 
boiler is perhaps the most troublesome. Cracks in the setting 
may be detected and the leakage of air into the setting may be 
stopped. Proper insulation will reduce radiation, and scale on 
the water surfaces may be eliminated to a large extent by the use 
of pure or softened water. The formation of soot and ash, how- 
ever, is universal and continuous as long as there is an active 
fire under the boiler. Depending upon the degree of combus- 
tion and arrangement of the setting, the quantity of soot varies 
and its character differs with the fuel, but there is no stopping of 
its formation. Even if conditions were ideal and combustion 
complete, a heat-insulating coating composed largely of ash would 
form on the tube surface. 

As a rule the soot found in boilers is not pure soot or carbon. 
It contains a varying proportion of ash, so that the color may be 
light gray, red, brown or black where conditions are particularly 
unfavorable to good combustion. In coming from the furnace 
the soot particles are more or less plastic and readih^ adhere to 
the metal surface of the tubes. Unless the deposit is quickly re- 
moved the carbon on the tubes near the fire will burn out in part, 



60 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

fusing the various ingredients into a hard coating which increases 
rapidly as the gas temperature rises because of the insulation of 
the tubes. In water-tube boilers it is not uncommon to find on 
the heating surface near the fire hard clinker-like formation, in 
some cases bridging the tubes. Even with efficient and frequent 
cleaning it is practically impossible to keep the lower tubes near 
the fire entirely free of this slag-like formation. Further back 
the soot does not contain so large a percentage of ash. It is us- 
ually darker in color and the formation is not cemented together. 
Loose deposits rest on all retaining surfaces, such as the upper 
portions of the tubes. 

With all kinds of fuel, then, there is formation of soot. An- 
thracite contains a low percentage of volatile matter, but may run 
high in ash, so that the deposit is largely the latter constituent 
and is usually of a light powdery character. With bituminous 
coal, high in both volatile and ash, there is a large percentage of 
carbon in the soot, particularly if the furnace conditions are not 
favorable to good combustion. In waste-heat boilers deposits of 
fine powdered dust carried along with the gas are to be found, 
and even with oil fuel there is some formation of soot. Owing 
to excellent combustion the quantity is small, but as the deposit 
is pure soot of high insulating value, its removal is important 
from an efficiency standpoint. The soot evil also extends to the 
economizer, the deposits resembling the boiler soots. Because of 
the lower temperatures the formation is more profuse and its in- 
terference with heat transmission relatively greater as the differ- 
ence in temperature between gas and water is less. 

It has been commonly stated that next to loose wool loose lamp- 
black or soot is the best insulator known. In this respect it is 
ahead of hair felt and is more than five times as effective as fine 
asbestos. All this may be true, but boiler soot is not all lamp- 
black. The varying percentages of ash and the density and 
structure of the deposit will naturally affect the insulating prop- 
erties. Besides, the coating is not evenly distributed, so that 
part of the surface at least will be comparatively clean. If the 
maximum heat transfer through the boiler tubes is to be main- 
tained, however, all of the heating surface must be kept clean, 
and this is particularly true where boilers are forced over normal 
rating, as is the practice in modern plants. If the soot is allowed 
to remain, another bad feature is the formation of carbonic and 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 



61 



sulphuric acids, which act on the metal of the boiler, causing 
leaky tubes and general deterioration that will shorten the useful 
life of the boiler. It is quite evident, then, that soot must be 
removed if the best results are to be obtained, and the question 
at issue is the easiest and most efficient method of doing this. 

Methods of Removing Soot. For this purpose there are the 
hand lance and the mechanical blower. The former, consisting 
of a rubber hose and nozzle, was the first device to be used. It 
is, of course, very simple, and the initial cost is small. Two men 
are required to operate it — one at the boiler to handle the nozzle 
and the other at the steam valve. The work is naturally hot, 
dirty and disagreeable, and on a medium-sized boiler it takes 
from twenty to thirty minutes. Usually there are not more than 



I 100 




10 15 20 25 30 55 40 45 50 55 60 66 70 
Time in Minutes 

Fig. 17 — Si'eam Consumption with Hand Lance 



one or at most two blowings per day of twenty-four hours. Tlie 
lance is inserted through dusting doors in the setting, and there 
is no opportunity for the operator to see the result of his work. 
Unless he is conscientious beyond the average the surface may be 
poorly cleaned and some sections be neglected entirely. Usually 
the lance does not reach all of the heating surface, the area cov- 
ered being determined by the kind of dusting doors, the width of 
alley space at the side of the boiler and the range of the lance 
due to the angle of the dusting door. Another objection com- 
monly advanced against hand blowing is the fact that when soot 
is blown across the tops of the tubes it strikes the battery wall 
and tends to pile upon the far tubes, contrary to the argument 
that the draft will carry it off. Moreover, there is the additional 



62 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



objection of large quantities of cold air being drawn into the 
setting during the period the steam lance is in operation. This 
means less efficient combustion. 

Labor is another item entering into the comparison. The me- 
chanical blower requires but one man, and the time of blowing is, 
say, one-fourth as long, so that the ratio is eight to one. "With 
very large boilers it may be considerably higher. Local condi- 
tions, size of plant, etc., determine whether the saving in time will 
be sufficient to dispense with the services of employees retained 
for this work. 

Objections oifered to the mechanical blower are initial cost, 
running from 5 to 10 per cent of the cost of the boiler, the burn- 
ing out of the elements exposed to the hottest gases direct from 



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Time in Minutes x>Qr Blow 

FlG. 18 — Total Steam Required for Period Blower is in Operation 

the furnace, and warping. The objection last named, warping, 
has always been a serious problem. It is a well-known fact that 
metal begins to warp long before it reaches a temperature that 
will cause corrosion or burning of the metal. For that reason it 
is necessary to construct the element so that it will have strength 
to resist the warping ; for as soon as this action begins the element 
will be thrown out of line, it will bind in the bearings and the 
operator will be unable to turn it. 

The initial cost is comparatively small when compared to a 5 
per cent saving in the fuel bill, the reduction in labor and the 
convenience of operation. Destruction of the elements near the 
fire has been obviated to some extent by the use of special metal 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 63 

having- high heat-resisting qualities and by so placing the ele- 
ments that they are protected from the direct heat of the furnace 
when in the non-operating position. Corrosion, due to back suc- 
tion of the boiler gases into the blowing elements, has been re- 
duced by the use of special air valves, and special precautions 
have been taken to drain the piping system of the blower to pre- 
vent condensation being forced out onto the heating surface to 
interfere with soot removal and to corrode the metal. These 
various improvements, better placing of the elements and nozzles 
of improved design have so perfected the mechanical blower that, 
according to reports from numerous users, the services rendered 
are excellent and the maintenance charges are comparatively 
small. 

While users of the mechanical soot blowers realize that they 
are getting better heat transfer, that the flue gases are lower in 
temperature and that the boiler efficiency has been improved, 
there is a lamentable lack of specific data showing the saving 
actually effected and the average cost of maintenance. The 
blowers have been installed. They are giving satisfaction. The 
boilers will carry more load, and it is known that the flue tem- 
peratures are considerably lower than previous to the installation. 
During the first two or three years of use repair parts are re- 
quired occasionally. Depending upon the service, the average 
life of the blower is at least five or six years. The labor of 
blowing has been reduced, and as the work is less arduous, it is 
performed more frequently and with better results. 

Such was the gist of replies from a large number of power- 
plant owners and engineers to whom inquiries had been sent by 
the Electrical World concerning the saving in fuel and labor 
effected by the installation of mechanical blowers, the cost of 
maintenance and the degree of satisfaction the blowers gave in 
service. The substance of some of the replies, more specific than 
others, is presented in the following: 

The Iowa Falls Electric Company has equipped three Edge 
Moor water-tube boilers of the four-pass type with soot blowers. 
Two of the boilers were rated at 410 hp. and the other at 550 hp. 
The boilers had previously been blown by hand, and the work 
required the full time of one man at a cost of $850 per year. In 
the company's opinion it took a remarkably good man to stand 
up beside a hot boiler and blow every tube. Frequently some of 



64 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

the tubes were missed, and the result was a reduction in efficiency. 
Besides, a man could not hold a hose carrying 175-lb. (12.3 kg. 
per sq. cm.) steam pressure. It had taken the company two 
months to get all of the old scale off the tubes caused by blowing 
them with wet, low-pressure steam. The principal advantage 
of the mechanical blower in its estimation was the fact that full 
boiler pressure could be used and that better results were ob- 
tained. Since the installation of the blowers the services of the 
man previously mentioned had been dispensed with, and the fire- 
men were blowing the tubes twice on every shift. The saving 
in coal was placed at 15 per cent. The blowers had been in 
service one year, and the maintenance expense had been the cost 
of 1 pint (0.47 1.) of oil to lubricate the swing joints. 

The Iowa Railway & Light Company of Cedar Rapids had in- 
stalled mechanical soot blowers on twenty-nine Edge Moor water- 
tube boilers during a period extended from 1909 to 1918. The 
company knew that the blowers were a great help both in labor 
and economy, but could give no definite figures. It had been 
found that the blowers would not keep clinkers off the first row 
of tubes. Here was a chance for improvement. 

In the plant of the Indianapolis Light & Heat Company four- 
teen boilers, ranging in size from 500 hp. to 800 hp., were 
equipped with mechanical blowers. If properly operated, the 
blowers saved approximately 15 per cent in fuel and labor. 
About 121^^ per cent of this saving was attributed to higher boiler 
efficiency and 2^/^ per cent to a reduction in labor cost. The 
maintenance had been approximately $5 per installation per 
month. 

The Richmond Light & Railroad Company had blowers on ten 
606-hp. B. & W. boilers, equipped with Tajdor stokers. The 
maintenance on the blowers, which had been installed from one 
to two years, had been practically nothing. The company had 
no accurate data to show the saving in coal and labor, but was 
satisfied that the blowers were a good investment. 

The Edison Electric Illuminating Company of Brooklyn had 
in use blowers on seventeen B. & W. boilers averaging 650 hp., 
and forty-five additional units were being installed. Installation 
work had begun in November, 1916, and no definite figures as to 
fuel saving are available, as the majority of the boilers were 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 



65 



still blown by hand. In the opinion of the operating eng-ineer 
there was no (luestion that the boilers were much cleaner by the 
use of the mechanical soot blower, and as a result a saving in fuel 
must result. When all of the soot blowers were installed, the 
labor saving would eliminate the services of five men and would 
amount to about $13 per day. 

Soot blowers on 4900 hp. of Stirling boilers are in use at the 
plant of the Indiana Railways & Light Company of Kokomo, Ind. 



1500 

14 00 

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P^G. 10 — Steam Consumption of 2-in. Blower for Various I'hessures 

No tests have been made to determine the percentage of saving. 
Cleaner tubes so clearly indicated a saving that the question had 
not been analyzed. It had been their experience that the soot 
blower complete had to be removed in from five to six j^ears. 

Four 750-hp. Bigelow-IIornsby boilers in the plant of the 
Salem Electric Lighting Company of Salem, Mass., had been 
equipped with soot blowers in 1915 ; five blowers were installed 
on 280-hp. Heine boilers in the plant of the Rockland Light & 
Power Company of Nyack, N. Y., in 1914, and in the same year 
a 600-hp. B. & W. boiler of the Maiden Electric Company of 
^lalden, Mass., was equipped with a blow^er. In the plant first 
mentioned the saving in labor was $675 per year, in the second 
plant $411 per year, and in the Maiden plant the labor saving 
was undetermined. Blower repairs in the three plants had been 
negligible. In the opinion of the engineering manager controll- 
ing the three properties there was no question that there had been 
a saving in fuel on all the boilers equipped with mechanical soot 
blowers, as it was possible to clean the tubes twice in twent.y-four 



66 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

hours so that the heating surface was maintained in much better 
condition. No exact data were available. 

The Central Hudson Gas & Electric Company of Poughkeepsie, 
N. Y., had equipped six of eight Stirling boilers with mechan- 
ical blowers. These blowers were much more effective than the 
compressed air they had previously used, and there was a con- 
siderable reduction in labor. 

Installation of soot blowers on two 400-hp. Heine water-tube 
boilers in the plant of the Chester Valley Electric Company of 
Coatesville, Pa., in the year 1911 had resulted in a saving in the 
operation of the plant roughly estimated at 5 per cent. The 
above figure was considered conservative and was divided into 1 
per cent in labor and 4 per cent in fuel. The maintenance 
charges, which had been small, were placed at $100 in seven 
years. 

With blower installations on two 350-hp. Heine boilers and 
two Stirling boilers for several years, the Texas Power & Light 
Company placed the cost of upkeep at $5 per blower per year. 
A saving in fuel of approximately 10 per cent was estimated over 
hand blowing. 

The public lighting plant of the city of Detroit had installed 
soot blowers on two 685-hp. Stirling boilers on April 21, 1916. 
To clean the soot from two 400-hp. Stirling boilers by means of 
a steam hose from ladders required the labor of two men for 
about three hours. With the mechanical blowers the battery of 
two 685-hp. boilers was cleaned by one man in one-half hour, the 
ratio being twelve to one in favor of the mechanical blower. So 
far there has been no maintenance expense. 

One of the large central-station companies of the country has 
equipped fifty-five boilers with mechanical soot blowers. These 
blowers are of competitive types, and a few of home manufacture. 
Fifteen of the installations have been made on Stirling boilers 
rated at 2365 hp. that operate all the way up to about 200 per 
cent of rating. On overload the temperatures are high and the 
conditions severe, so that it has been found necessary to assist in 
the further development of the blowers. To clean one of the 
large boilers by hand requires twelve to fourteen hours ' time with 
two men operating. These men receive 38 cents per hour, so that 
the labor cost for hand blowing averages about twenty-six hours 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 67 

of 38-cent time, or just under $10 per 2500 boiler-hp. per twenty- 
four hours. 

With soot blowers installed two men blow a boiler in about 
one hour. They blow each boiler three times per day, so that the 
total labor cost approximates $2.30 per 2500 boiler-hp. per twen- 
ty-four hours. Thus the labor item is reduced to less than one- 
fourth, and the boiler has the advantage of three cleanings per 
day. The job is much better done, and no useless air is admitted 
through open doors. The effect of this factor wdll be appreciated 
when it is noticed that it takes from twelve to fourteen hours to 
blow one of the boilers by hand. 

To clean one of the big boilers with a mechanical blower re- 
quires about 3500 lb. of steam per blow. Three operations per 
day w^ould require about 10,500 lb. (4762.7 kg.) of steam per 
2500 boiler-hp. every twenty-four hours. 

The maintenance charges on soot blowers had not been sep- 
arated from certain other somewhat similar costs, but it was 
estimated that soot blowers properly installed could be kept in 
good operating condition with a maintenance expenditure of not 
over $200 per 2500 boiler-hp. per year. The average charge had 
been higher than this, but it was due to the fact that certain 
parts as originally designed and installed had given out fre- 
quently and had to be replaced. Owing to imperfect methods 
used for measuring flue-gas temperatures accurate data wert 
not available to indicate the thermal advantage obtained from 
the use of soot blowers. It was believed safe to assume, how- 
ever, that mechanical soot blowing maintained a flue-gas tem- 
perature about 30 deg. to 40 deg. lower than could be main- 
tained with hand blowing, and unless the latter operation was 
completely and conscientiously done, the difference would be 
more nearly 80 deg. to 100 deg. less. 

SAVING EFFECTED BY USE OF SOOT CLEANER 

According to a soot-cleaner manufacturer, approximately 18.3 
tons of coal is saved by each foot of pipe during the lifetime of 
the cleaner. In addition, it is said that each foot of pipe elim- 
inates one man's labor each da}^ which is usually required to 
blow the pipes with steam. Since the average water-tube boiler 
requires about 200 ft. (61 m.) of pipe, it is not di^cult to com- 



68 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

pute the total money saved or the money saved by the reduction 
of labor cost alone on the above basis. If it is assumed that 
boiler-room labor can be had as low as $2 per day, the labor 
saving with the average cleaner is $400 for the lifetime of the 
cleaner. As for coal saving, if it is assumed the price of coal is 
$4 per ton and 200 ft. of pipe cleaner, the money saving for the 
lifetime of the cleaner will be about $14,600. This amount 
added to the labor saving makes the total $15,000. 

Although these figures vary with labor and coal cost, they can 
easily be adjusted to suit any conditions. The estimates are 
made for boilers operated at 140 per cent rating with an average 
coal consumption of 4 lb. (1.8 kg.) per boiler-horsepower per 
hour, boilers operating twenty-four hours per day and 325 days 
per year. The further assumption that the life of a cleaner is 
seven years is verified by the experience of the United Electric 
Light & Power Company, New York City, which installed soot 
cleaners on thirty-two boilers five years ago, the cleaners having 
shown only slight signs of wear. Moreover, cleaners now made 
have a much higher safety factor than those installed five years 
ago because of the cast-iron-sheathed elements with which they 
are now equipped. 

MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS NEEDED IN A POWER 

HOUSE 

Following is a list of instruments and measuring equipment 
considered essential to the most economical operation of the steam 
end of a modern power station, as outlined recently before Ohio 
station operating men by C. E. Lewis of Toledo : 

For Coal. — Track scales; choice of spiral spout meter, auto- 
matic scales at each point, weighing larry, weightometer. Coal 
calorimeter. 

For Furnaces. — Draft gages at chimnej^, at outlet of econo- 
mizers, at uptakes of boiler and over fire ; choice of U-tube type, 
oil-filled differential type, indicating bellows type, recording 
types. Pressure gages on wind box (if forced draft), U-tube 
type, recording type. Recording flue-gas thermometer. Record- 
ing stoker speed meter. 

For Boilers. — Steam-flow meter on each boiler ; choice of Pitot- 
tube type, Venturi type, orifice type, combination recording 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 69 

steam flow, air flow, flue-gas temperature and indicating draft 
meter. Recording superheat thermometer. Recording blow- 
down meters. 

For Economizers. — Four recording thermometers for gas en- 
tering, gas leaving, w^ater entering and water leaving. 

For Feed-Water Heaters. — Water meter on make-up line, on 
condensate line and on line leaving heater. Two recording ther- 
mometers for water entering heater. One recording thermometer 
for water leaving heater. Level recorder. 

For Feed Pumps. — Indicating gage on suction and on dis- 
charge. Bi-record pressure gage. 

For Turhines. — Indicating gages at throttle, at different stages, 
on bearing oil. Recording pressure gage. Superheat thermom- 
eter. Mercury vacuum gage. Barometer. Indicating thermom- 
eters. Hydrometer for air washer. 

For Condensers. — Indicating or recording thermometers, or 
both, at exhaust steam from turbines, discharge water, injection 
water, air suction, condensate, condensate leaving reheater. 

MEASURING DEVICES HELP PLANT ECONOMY 

The one 550-hp. and two 410-hp. Edge Moor hand-fired four- 
pass boilers at the plant of the Iowa Falls (Iowa) Electric Com- 
pany were being stoked in a more or less haphazard fashion when 
a new chief engineer was hired. The first thing he did was, in 
his own language, "to let things go blindly, as they had been 
going, to get a line on the firemen." This resulted in the dis- 
covery that firemen were piling a lot of coal into the furnaces, 
then sitting down leisurely while the steam ran up to the pop- 
ping-ofl^ point and then dropped back 25 lb. or 30 lb. per square 
inch (1.75 kg. or 2.1 kg. per sq. cm.). At this stage they would 
''slug" the fire again. This was the cycle of operations day after 
day. 

This resulted in the installation of a recording steam pressure 
gage. It required very little encouragement to create a friendly 
rivalry between shifts to see which could make the best charts. 
Now these same firemen have become so proficient that, with only 
an occasional glance at the chart, they keep the pressure range 
within 5 lb. per square inch (0.35 kg. per sq. cm.), which is very 
good for hand firing. 



70 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

When this stage was reached the chief engineer, using a single 
Orsat machine, decided to look into the condition of the COg. 
The first samples taken from the first pass showed from 5 per 
cent to 6 per cent, indicating about a 35 per cent loss of fuel. 
The draft was then cut down over the fires and increased under 
the fires, and this showed a gain of 2 per cent in the COg. While 
accurate draft-measuring instruments were not available, this 
procedure as a cut-and-try process was continued until the sam- 
ples of COg show 13 per cent to 14 per cent and it was possible to 
carry the peak load without changing the draft. The draft is 
now about 0.3 in. (0.7 cm.) over the fires. 

When the first pass showed this much improvement, samples 
were taken in the last pass. These showed 8 per cent CO^. Ex- 
periments with the third pass gave the same results, showing 
that the baffling was all right. A search for air leaks was then 
started, which revealed a bad leak in the header. After this was 
stopped it was possible to get as high as 15 per cent CO^. The 
boilers are now covered with a plastic cement which is very effec- 
tive in keeping out air. On the whole, the plant is operating 
much more efficiently, owing to the installation and use of 
proper measuring instruments. 

CHEAP SOLUTION FOR ORSAT APPARATUS 

By using the waste solution from Edison batteries for the liquid 
potassium hydroxide usually required for a COg device, the Cit- 
izens' Light & Power Company of Adrian, Mich., has found that 
great economy can be effected. One filling of this solution will 
last for a month of testing and represents an amount of potas- 
sium hydroxide that costs about $2.75, whereas the return value 
of the battery solution is only about 10 cents. Furthermore, the 
time and trouble required for making up the solution are elim- 
inated. 

NOZZLE FOR CLEANING SURFACE CONDENSER TUBES 

A simple and efficient nozzle for cleaning surface condenser 
tubes, which is far more rapid, yet more thorough, than the 
usual form of rod and brush, may be utilized where air under 
pressure is available. The cleaning outfit consists essentially of 
a piece of ^/4-in. (0.6-cm.) pipe bent to shape, a reducer, a %-in. 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 71 

(1.3-cni.) T, a pair of regulating valves and suitable lengths of 
air and water hose. Air is required under 60 lb. per sq. in. (4.2 
kg. per sq. cm.) pressure or more. A cheek valve should be 
placed in the air line to obviate any chance of water getting 
back into the line. The head is taken off at one end of the 
condenser; at the other end only the hand-hole plates are re- 
moved. The nozzle is rapidly moved from tube to tube at the 
open end, and the dirt, consisting mostly of mud and seaweed, is 
expelled from the tube by the scouring action of the air and 
water. After the washing is complete, the ejected mud is scooped 
out through the hand-holes at the other end of the condenser. 
By this means one man can clean a 4000-kw., 10,000-sq. ft. (900- 
sq. m.) surface condenser, containing approximately 3400 15-ft. 
(4.6 m.) 2%-in. by %-in. (7.3-cm. by 1.9-cm.) tubes, in six hours, 
not including the time required for removing and replacing the 
condenser head and plates. The operator must wear a rubber 
coat and a helmet. 

It is stated by the station operators of the San Diego Consoli- 
dated Gas & Electric Company, who utilize this form of nozzle, 
that this method of cleaning is a great labor saver. When the 
air and water nozzle was first used hollow cylinders of mud and 
sewage were ejected from many of the tubes, showing the new 
method to be a decidedly thorough cleanser. It is understood 
that some central stations use sand blasts for cleaning tubes. 
With the particular forms of sediment encountered in San Diego, 
no scale being present, sand appears to be unnecessary, and the 
wearing action which may result from the use of sand is not ex- 
perienced. 

COAL PILE SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION 

Heat due to oxidation rather than pressure was given as the 
main cause of spontaneous combustion of bituminous coal by 
Prof. H. H. Stock of the University of Illinois before a meeting 
of the Western Society of Engineers. He said that coal should 
be stored so as entirely to exclude any air, or else adequate ven- 
tilation should be provided to keep the coal at a low tempera- 
ture. Any intermediate conditions are dangerous and should be 
avoided. 

Among precautions which were suggested for preventing spon- 



72 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

taneous combustion were: Coals of different varieties should 
not be mixed while in storage, and the coal should not be piled 
high on account of the difficulty of moving it in case of fire. If 
sufficient heating occurs to raise the temperature to 150 deg. 
Fahr., close watch should be kept on the pile ; if the temperature 
increases to 175 deg. Fahr., it should be moved and cooled before 
more coal is added. Equipment for storing coal should be 
arranged to make it possible to move the coal quickly in case of an 
emergency. To avoid the starting of fires pieces of wood and 
greasy waste should be carefully removed from storage piles and 
the coal in storage should be kept away from external sources of 
heat, such as steam pipes. 

Common methods for testing coal piles for heat are as follows : 
Watching when the pile begins to steam; observing the odor, 
which is that of either burning bituminous matter or burning sul- 
phur; inserting an iron rod into the pile and when drawn out 
testing it with the hand; inserting a thermometer into a pipe 
driven into the pile ; observing spots of melted snow on the pile. 

He said further that opinions differ in regard to the critical 
temperature in piles of coal. Professor Parr of the University 
of Illinois is of the opinion that bituminous coal can be stored 
without appreciable loss of heat value, provided that the tem- 
perature is not allowed to rise above 180 deg. Fahr. How close 
to this temperature a pile should be allowed to heat is largely a 
matter of judgment, for if the rise in temperature appears to be 
decreasing rather rapidly it may be safe to allow it to approach 
180 deg. Fahr., whereas if the rise is steady and regular it is wise 
to load out the pile before the danger point is reached. The 
time also depends upon the means available for loading out the 
coal, for at a plant equipped with large grab buckets and means 
for rapidly handling the coal a higher temperature can be per- 
mitted than where a considerable time may be required to load 
out the coal. A person in charge of a certain kind of coal under 
certain climatic conditions will soon learn what the danger point 
is, and it is impossible to set any critical temperature that will 
apply to all coals under varying storage conditions. The only 
safe rule is to watch the pile closely and get ready to load out 
the coal when the temperature reaches 150 deg. Fahr. and to 
move the coal if the temperature reaches 175 deg. Fahr. 

An interesting experiment has been carried out at the Uni- 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 73 

versity of Illinois in stocking No. 6 Illinois coal mined near 
Georgetown, 111. For several years it has been customary for 
the university to stock 4000 tons to 5000 tons of coal on the 
ground in piles about 12 ft. (3.7 m.) high, the coal being thrown 
from railroad cars onto the piles and distributed by scrapers. At 
times fires occurred in these piles. 

During the summer and fall of 1917 a pile of about 10,000 
tons of coal was placed on an old tennis court which furnished 
a hard foundation. This coal was piled to a depth of 10 ft. 
(3 m.) or 12 ft. (3.7 m.) and surrounded on three sides by a 
light fence 7 ft. (2.1 m.) high. The coal was transported to the 
tennis court by means of a motor truck, and the entire surface of 
the ground was covered to a depth of from 2 ft. to 5 ft. (0.6 m. 
to 1.5 m.) . This layer of coal was then rolled with a heavy roller 
to pack it down tightly and exclude the air as much as possible. 
The fence, of course, assisted in excluding the air around the 
edges of the pile. Plank roads were then laid over the top of the 
pile so that the motor truck could dump more coal on top of the 
layer which had been rolled. This process was repeated contin- 
uously until the pile was completed. This method of storing coal 
proved rather successful. While heating developed in a couple 
of places where other coal had been mixed with the screenings, 
the method otherwise proved entirely satisfactory. The cost of 
storing and reclaiming coal handled in this way averaged about 
40 cents per ton. 

DETERMINATION OF INSULATION ECONOMY 

By calculating the volume of heat loss from insulated pipes and 
adding the fixed expense and cost of maintaining the insulating 
material a decision can be reached as to the expenditure which 
can be economically made to insulate pipes. Curves which take 
these considerations into account are given in Fig. 20, the actual 
cost per year per square foot of surface covered being shown 
direct. 

The horizontal lines represent the cost of upkeep, and the 
curves radiating from zero give the value of the heat losses at 
various temperature differences. The temperature difference to 
be used is found by subtracting the temperature of the surround- 
ing air from the temperature of the steam in the pipes. By 



74 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



adding the constant and variable costs the total expense charge- 
able to insulated pipes is obtained. This is shown by the remain- 
ing curves. 

Referring to a handbook or similar source of information, the 
loss from bare pipes can be obtained and a comparison made. 




1.00 zoo 500 400 500 

Temperature Difference, Deg. Fahrenheit 

Fig. 20 — Total Expenses Chargeable to Pipe Insulated with 85 per 

CENT Magnesia 

The experiments on which this chart was based were made at the 
Mellon Institute of Industrial Research at Pittsburg, Pa. In- 
sulating material known as 85 per cent magnesia was vised in the 
tests, which covered a year's time. 



SPONGE-FELT INSULATION PROVES VALUE 

A 2200-ft. (670-m.) length of outdoor pipe line 6 in. (15 cm.) 
in diameter transmitting steam having a temperature of 466 
deg. Fahr. has been successfully insulated from a low tempera- 
ture during the winter months by a combination of sponge and 
hair felt. The sponge is placed next to the pipe and covered with 
the hair felt. The hair felt will not withstand high temperature 
but makes an excellent intermediate or superficial covering. 
The total thickness of the heat insulation on this line is 3 in. (7.6 
em. ) , and tests show that the outside temperature is only slightly 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 75 

above that of the air with the latter at 22 deg. Fahr. In the 
winter icicles formed on the line. 

ASBESTOS INSULATION CONSERVES HEAT 

The use of asbestos insulation between the courses of the brick 
settings of boilers reduces air leakage and conserves heat that is 
usually wasted with the ordinary air space, according to recent 
investigations of the United States Bureau of Mines. Firebrick 
should withstand temperatures up to 3000 deg. Fahr., but it is a 
good conductor of heat and conducts it six to ten times as fast 
as the asbestos felt. Red brick conducts heat about five times as 
fast as the felt. Insulating material with smaller air spaces re- 
duces convection losses far better than material with the larger 
air spaces. This practice is especially timely with the present 
fuel prices, and the result shows that it is not economical to use 
cheaper insulations for high steam pressures. When subjected 
to temperatures of 1200 deg. to 1500 deg. Fahr., the disintegra- 
tion of the better grade of asbestos fibers starts and the material 
gradually becomes more brittle, not going to pieces, however, 
much below 1800 deg. Fahr. 

PROTECTING LAGGING ON SOOT-BLOWER PIPING 

Sometimes when the side doors in a boiler setting are opened 
the flash of flame which comes forth is sufiicient to burn the cloth 
covering from the magnesia which surrounds the adjacent soot- 
blower steam piping. The result is that the covering becomes 
very unsightly and the magnesia soon begins to drop from the 
pipes, leaving them uninsulated. Without a covering on the 
pipes condensation of the steam will occur, and this is undesirable 
in blowing soot. To eliminate this trouble the Dayton (Ohio) 
Power & Light Company in its new power house at Miller 's Ford 
lias covered all pipes adjacent to the doors with galvanized iron. 
The sheet metal is applied after the magnesia and duck are in 
place. 

INCREASING STATION ECONOMY 

Southern California being a large fuel-oil producing section, 
there has as yet been no real shortage of fuel there. However, 
oil consumption is rapidly increasing, and there are grave possi- 



76 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

bilities of a real fuel-oil shortage in the near future. All pos- 
sible means are therefore being devised writes J. W. Andree, 
Assistant Superintendent Department of Generation, Southern 
California Edison Company, to decrease the consumption of fuel 
oil. All the water powers of southern California are being util- 
ized to their utmost, hardly a drop of water going to waste in 
this section which can be put into use at a reasonable cost. At 
the Lytic Creek plant of the Southern California Edison Com- 
pany wells have been sunk in the river bed below the diversion 
dam, and the underflow of the river is pumped from these wells 
into the conduit leading to the power plant by motor-driven 
pumps. 

On the Santa Ana River water rising below the diversion dams 
of the upper plants is diverted into the intake of the lower plants. 
The pipe lines of the Mill Creek No. 3 plant have been cleaned 
of all vegetable and animal growth to decrease resistance to the 
flow of water. Nature has lent a helping hand at this plant to 
increase its output. The winter rains always leave the river bed 
very rough and full of porous gravel, which encourages a large 
underflow of water. Early summer rains this year have brought 
down an abundance of silt and cement-like deposit, which has 
effectively filled many of the voids in the river bed and thus 
decreased the underflow, and as a result the flow of this river has 
been much larger than in other years of equal rainfall. 

At the Mill Creek No. 2 plant water which flows under the 
diversion dams is diverted into the canal at a lower point. New 
buckets are being designed for this plant which should increase its 
efficiency from 10 to 15 per cent. The waterwheels in the Mill 
Creek No. 1 plant have been recently overhauled, and the design 
of the needle valve and tips has been changed to give the highest 
possible efficiency on the old-type equipment of this plant. 

Increasing Waterwheel Efficiency. The design of the needle 
valves and tips of the Azusa plant is being changed to increase 
the efficiency of the waterwheels. The nozzle tip on one of the 
waterwheels at the Sierra plant has been made larger to increase 
the output of the plant during periods of high water. At this 
plant it is also contemplated to replace the old two-phase, 500- 
volt generators with 11,000-volt generators of modern design 
from the Pedley plant, operation of which has been discontinued. 
By doing this the electrical efficiency of the plant will be in- 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 77 

creased and transformer losses will be eliminated because the 
generators will feed directly into the 11,000-volt distribution 
system. 

All important transmission systems of southern California are 
interconnected, the larger and more efficient plants being op- 
erated at full load and the smaller and less efficient plants used 
only to carry peak loads. Frequency-changer sets have been 
placed in operation between the systems operating at different 
frequencies. A 5000-kw. frequency-changer set is in operation 
at Colton, connecting with the Southern Sierras Power Company, 
and similar units are in operation at San Juan Capistrano and 
Magunden, connecting with the San Diego Gas & Electric Com- 
pany and the San Joaquin Light & Power Company respectively. 

The Kern River No. 1 plant is being operated at 60 cycles on 
the San Joaquin Light & Power Company's system, and it in 
turn is feeding the Mount Whitney Power & Electric Company 
at the same frequency. At such times as there may be an excess 
of hydroelectric power on these systems the excess can be diverted 
to the Southern California Edison Company's system through the 
frequency changer at ]\Iagunden, or the generators at the Kern 
River No. 1 plant may be changed to the 50-cycle system. This 
change can be accomplished with an interruption of only fifteen 
minutes (on the generator being changed) if all generators are 
running loaded and with no interruption at all if three or fewer 
are in operation. 

To decrease the consumption of fuel oil at the Redondo plant 
one-third of the total number of boilers have been equipped with 
furnaces for burning natural gas. Those furnaces are of the 
multiple-burner type, there being 180 gas jets distributed over 
the entire floor of the furnace. The gas enters the furnace from 
the front through five 21'^-in. (63-mm.) extra-heavy pipe laterals 
extending the full depth of the furnace under the furnace floor. 
At intervals of about 9 in. (25 mm.) these laterals are tapped on 
each side for 0.5-in. (13-mm.) pipe nipples, which are capped 
with standard pipe caps and have a ^i6-in. (5-mm.) hole drilled 
in the top near the outer end. Over this opening is placed a fire- 
clay burner tube 15 in. (38 cm.) long and 3 in. (8 cm.) inside 
diameter. These tubes have a slot cut in one side which straddles 
the 0.5-in. nipple with the orifice in the center of the tube and 
12 in. (30 cm.) from the top. The top of the tube is flush with 



78 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

the floor of the furnace, and baffle bricks are laid over the tube 
opening to diffuse the gas flame. The furnace floor is supported 
on 2-in. (5-cm.) standard pipe. This furnace burns the gas very 
efficiently, and the flame is so evenly distributed that there is 
practically no danger of burning or blistering of the boiler tubes. 
To avoid damage to the clay-burner tubes due to expansion of 
the furnace floor, the floor is loosely laid with mortar containing 
asbestos. 

These furnaces are also equipped with front-shot oil burners 
for use in emergency when there is a failure of the gas supply. 
While the efficiency of oil burners in these furnaces is not very 
good, still it is more economical to use them for short periods of 
gas interruption rather than to warm up cold boilers which are 
equipped with oil-burning furnaces. The oil burners can be put 
into operation on instant notice so there is no interruption of the 
supply of steam. 

CAUSES OF IMPAIRED TURBINE ECONOMY 

In addition to its many other advantages the steam turbine 
has the characteristic of maintaining its original efficiency for 
a considerable length of time, Josef Y. Dahlstrand, Chief Engi- 
neer, Kerr Turbine Company, states, if operated intelligently and 
properly maintained. In the majority of cases it can also be re- 
stored to its original efficiency with a small expenditure compared 
to that necessary for the same purpose on an engine. 

The causes of impaired steam economy with a turbine or turbo- 
unit in many cases lie entirely outside of the turbine itself. In 
certain instances, however, the causes are found to develop right 
in the turbine. When steam economy is impaired it does not 
necessarily follow that the thermo-dynamic efficiency of the tur- 
bine affected is decreased. In some cases the thermo-dynamic 
efficiency might actually be increased. In the following article 
the steam economy of the turbine only will be considered, rather 
than the thermo-dynamic efficiency. 

To Save Coal Operate Turbines at Rated Vacuum. Probably 
the most common cause of decrease in steam economy, particu- 
larly with a small turbine, is the falling off of vacuum in the 
exhaust chamber. Furthermore, it generally results in the most 
serious loss. 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 79 

The effect of vacuum on the thermo-dynamic performance of 
the steam turbine is well recognized. Various papers and books 
have been published with charts giving the percentage of steam 
saved for each inch of vacuum. As a matter of fact, that per- 
centage varies greatly with varying steam pressure and varies 
somewhat with different types of turbines, with capacities, with 
operating speeds, with quality of steam and, last but not least, 
with the percentage of the designed load developed. 

The charts are of two different and distinct types. One shows 
the difference in steam consumption obtained with turbines de- 
signed for different vacuums. The other type illustrates the 
difference in steam performance obtained with a turbine designed 
for a certain vacuum but operated at a different vacuum, l^oth 
types are subject to variations, due to all the causes mentioned. 
Naturally the latter is the one which should be considered in this 
article. 

Certain curves are shown in Fig. 21 made by Mr. Dahlstrand 
from actual test data on a number of 1000-kw. Kerr turbines de- 
signed for 150-lb. steam pressure (dr,y and saturated steam) and 
operating at 3600 r.p.m. with varying vacua (27 in. to 29 in., or 
68.58 cm. to 73.66 cm.) and loads. These curves may be used 
with fairh^ good accuracy for turbines rated at 500 kw. to about 
3000 kw. Proper correction must of course be made for steam 
pressure, if this is not 150 lb. 

These curves are of special interest on account of the fact that 
they show the effect of vacuum when operating at partial loads. 
It will be noted that a turbine designed for 28 in. (71.12 cm.) of 
vacuum, and operating at 27 in. (68.58 cm.), with 25 per cent 
load, will have a steam rate 12 per cent in excess of that which 
it would have if operating at 28 in. vacuum and 25 per cent load. 
If, on the other hand, it was operating at 100 per cent load and 
27 in. vacuum, the steam rate will be impaired only 7 per cent 
compared with what it would have been if operated at the rated 
vacuum. The explanation of this lies, as will readily be under- 
stood, in the fact that when a turbine is operated at 25 per cent 
load the steam is throttled before entering the first stage nozzles 
to a pressure very much lower than 150 lb., and the number of 
heat units constituting the difference in available energy be- 
tween 27 in. and 28 in. vacuum becomes a nnich higher per- 
centage of the total energy available for use in the turbine. 



80 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



Consulting the entropy heat diagram for a verification of the 
correction figure, 7 per cent, between 28 in. and 27 in. vacuum, 
it will be found that from 150 lb. to 28 in. vacuum there is 323 
B.t.u. available, excluding the effect of reheating and consider- 
ing straight adiabatic expansion. From 150 lb. to 27 in. vacuum 



30 
26 
20 

^22K 
I20 
.E 16 

S '^ 
c 

j; 14 
\> 

S 12 

t 10 
^ 8 














■■ 1 ■ 
1 




























Desicjned for I50-It>. 


















\^ 





K'^ 




pressure anc^ vacuum 
from 27' fo 29" ernd- 
opera-hinc^ at same 
pressure and varying 


















\ 


\ 






















V N?" 


A 


-N 
CM 

-^ 
Q 


vacua 




\ 












CVi 

o 


\ 


t^; 


\ 














\ 












N 


V 


N 














\ 


\ 












^ 


N^s 
















\ 


v1<: 








\ 


^ 


^\ 


\ 
















H^-.K 






■* 
















\ 


> 


K 










V, 


--^ 
















^ 










\ 


^ 






\ 


^< 


^' 










N, 












S" 






















"^ 


& 


' 


















-=*^ 


^^ 







































































20 40 eO 60 100 20 40 60 60 100 20 40 60 S>0 100 

Per Cent. Looted 

Fig, 21 — Effect of Load and Other than Rated Vacuum on Water Rate 



there will be found 301 B.t.u. on the same basis. According to 
this, there is l'V2 per cent more heat available with 28 in. vacuum 
than with 27 in. vacuum. The correction figure for the latter 
water rate on this basis should be IV2 per cent. 

There are certain factors which have a tendency to increase 
this correction figure. They are : First, the windage losses, 
which increase with the density of the steam; second, the fact 
that the nozzle passages in the last stages are too large for the 
lower vacuum, a circumstance equivalent to operating the last 
stages at a partial load. These circumstances, however, are 
generally more than outweighed by another fact. 

As was mentioned before, an increase in steam consumption 
does not necessarily mean that the thermo-dynamic efficiency is 
decreased. On the contrary, it is sometimes actually increased. 
This happens to be true to some extent with nearly all commercial 
turbines of small and medium size. The thermo-dynamic effi- 
ciency^ is largely dependent on the "velocity ratio," or the rela- 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 



81 



tion between blade and steam velocities. For commercial rea- 
sons the turbine frames are actually in many cases somewhat 
smaller than those which would give the very best efficiency. 

It might be stated here that future tendencies in steam-tur- 
bine building will probably follow somewhat different lines from 
recent practice. Jn.stead of rating a turbine frame at its maxi- 
mum capacity, without regard for a small loss in efficiency, indi- 
cations are that the future policy will be to get the maximum 
efficiency even if at higher cost. 

As has already been stated, low vacuum is far from uncommon, 
particularly in small power plants. It is not unusual to find that 
a turbine designed for 28 in. (71.12 cm.) of vacuum is actually 
operating at 25 in. (63.5 cm.) vacuum for months, owing to leaks 
in the exhaust line or some similar cause, with a loss of no less 
than 16 per cent in steam consumption. The same percentage 

.Connected to 
. H. P Steam 
LJne 




Fig. 22 — Gland for Condensixg Service 

loss will be found in coal consumption if the low vacuum is due 
to air leaks, as this does not lighten the work of tlie auxiliaries 
but rather increases it. 

Leaky Glands or Exhaust Pipes Reduce Vacuum. The 
falling off of vacuum in the exhaust chamber of the steam turbine 



82 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

may be due to a number of different circumstances. The fore- 
most of these are air leaks. These may develop in the exhaust 
piping between the turbine and condenser, in the condenser itself 
or in the turbine glands. Air may also enter through the pis- 
ton-rod and valve-stem packing on condensate pumps. In addi- 
tion, air may enter the condenser through the circulating water. 

The exhaust-end gland of the steam turbine is generally sealed 
with water or steam, the simplest form of this gland for con- 
densing service being shown in Fig. 22. This gland is commonly 
used for impulse turbines. It has three carbon rings with a 
high-pressure connection. The valve throttling the high-pres- 
sure steam is opened sufficiently so that the pressure at the 
right point A is high enough to keep the air from leaking in and 
at the same time not high enough to cause any excessive leakage 
along the shaft toward the outside of the turbine. If too great 
an amount of high-pressure steam is necessary to seal the gland, 
it is evident that the packing needs to be replaced. Assurance 
that there is no leakage of air into the gland may be had by ad- 
justing the seal valve so that a very slight mist of steam escapes 
along the shaft. 

In certain cases with low-pressure turbines, where the steam 
supply comes from the exhaust of a non-condensing engine, steam 
leaks sometimes develop in the turbine steam line. These are 
especially common when operating turbines at low loads, in 
which cases the pressure on the first-stage nozzles is generally 
below atmosphere. In such cases it is often advisable to install 
a so-called flow valve in the low-pressure steam line. This valve 
is so made that it will maintain ahead of itself a constant pres- 
sure, no matter what the pressure may be on the opposite side 
of it. It will hence prevent vacuum from entering the engine 
exhaust pipe, which, as stated above, generally results in infiltra- 
tion of air through pipe joints or piston-rod and valve-stem 
packings. 

The air leaks in piping and condenser are easily detected. The 
most common method of detecting air leaks at these points is that 
of bringing the flame of a candle around the joints and noting 
at what points the flame is drawn toward the point. 

While air leaks are the most common cause for impairment 
in vacuum, there are others as well. A condenser which has been 
in service for a considerable length of time and which has been 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 



83 



allowed to accumulate a large amount of dirt on the surfaces will 
not be able to maintain the vacuum it could give in its original 
condition. 

Excessive back pressure is just as detrimental with iion-con- 
densing machines as impaired vacuum with condensing units. 
This is not so common as impaired vacuum, but ma}^ be caused 
through carelessness on the part of operating engineers in leavin«i- 
exhaust valves partly closed, etc. The effect of increased back 



^45 
c^ 35 



«30 
J- 25 
I 20 
c 15 
*> 1 

oj 5 
o 

.E 





































./ 


WN 


■CO/ 


vz)£y 


V5/A 


16 6 


rL.P 






























Over 200 hp. 


\ 

V 














Less than 200 Hp. 








^ 


f^ 


NDE 


NS/i 


NG 
























^^ 


¥ 


V 
































^ 


^ 






























^ 


^ 


^ 


:>^ 






























:V5 


^ 


^ 


J^ 


«f**< 


es^ 


5«^ 



Fig. 23- 



'/4 '/2 % \h 

-Effect of Load on Water Rates of Condensing and JS on- 
Condensing Turbines 

pressure on the steam economy of non-condensing turbines may 
be realized from the following table. 

Increase in Steam Consumption 
for Eacli Pound of Back Pressure 
(per cent) 
1 

iy4 



Initial Steam Pressure 

(lb.) 

200 

175 



150 
125 
100 

75 



2 

21/. 
3 



Operation at Partial Loads Is Uneconomical. Next in its 
effect on the steam economy of a turbine comes the operation of 
turbines at partial loads. In a great many instances steam tur- 
bines are ordered for certain loads and designed for these loads. 
Later on it develops that they are required to operate at points 
very much below the full load rating of the machine. \\\ sucli 
cases there generally results a considerable loss in steam econ- 
omy. The curves shown in Fig. 23 illustrate these losses as 
found in tests on Kerr steam turbines. 



84 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

The reason for the increased steam consumption at partial 
loads is obvious. The losses in the turbine do not change in pro- 
portion to the load but remain nearly constant for any load. 
Consequently the relation of these losses to the energy available 
increases for partial loads. The throttling of the steam which is 
found necessary for partial loads, unless hand valves are used, 
robs the steam turbine of some of the energy otherwise available. 

The fact that a turbine is operating at partial load may be seen 
by observation of a steam gage which is tapped into the ring 
chamber ahead of the first-stage nozzles. If the pressure under 
normal operation at this point is considerably below boiler pres- 
sure, it is an indication that the turbine is operating under a 
partial load, provided of course that it was designed for only a 
reasonable pressure drop through the valve. The power de- 
veloped with any type of turbine is very nearly proportional to 
the pressure at that point. 

Turbines should be made to operate normally under the con- 
ditions for which they are designed. If it is necessary that they 
should carry overloads, overload valves — either automatic or 
hand operated — should be used. 

Internal Leakage Should Be Avoided. Up to this point only 
those circumstances which arise through steam conditions and 
from outside sources have been considered. Certain mechanical 
conditions inside of the turbine may also cause a thermo-dynamic 
loss in the steam turbine. Foremost among them is internal 
leakage. This is caused by the wearing out of the packing rings 
or bushings or the excessive clearance of labyrinth packing be- 
tween the various stages in the steam turbine. 

Internal leakage is, of course, most liable to develop where the 
pressure differences are very great. Therefore, in certain makes 
of turbines the high pressure steam space is separated from the 
vacuum chamber with an internal gland. In cases of this kind 
it is always advisable to watch this gland carefully, as leaks may 
readily develop through it, causing a considerable loss in steam 
economy. Internal leakage is particularly detrimental in the 
high-pressure stages of a machine on account of the low specific 
volume of the steam in these stages, which results in a large dis- 
charge of steam through a small opening. 

Leakage may also take place between the stages along the hor- 
izontal joints of the diaphragms in a multi-stage turbine. The 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 85 

steam aud moisture may erode the surface of these diaphragms to 
such an extent that a considerable amount of steam will pass 
through from stage to stage. 

Leakage between stages as well as internal leakage may be de- 
tected by placing a gage in each stage of the turbine to give the 
pressure in that stage. Comparing these figures with the pres- 
sures which the turbine had when originally installed will give a 
good indication as to the condition in which the packings installed 
in the turbine are. 

Steam leakage through the high-pressure gland or through the 
leakage piping on this gland is generally negligible. It is usually 
sufficiently annoying to the operating engineer, however, to lead 
him to try to overcome this condition. Generally losses due to 
this cause are greatly exaggerated by operating engineers. 

Among the causes for impaired steam economy is excessive 
clearance between stationary and rotary elements. When this 
condition exists, Rateau, Curtis and other impulse turbines lose 
slightly in power. It would be difficult to formulate any definite 
rule as to the degree in which steam economy is influenced by 
clearance, as this varies with capacity of machine, nozzle and 
blade angles, etc. It is advisable, however, to bear it in mind if 
it becomes necessary to manipulate the thrust bearings. In gen- 
eral, it may be said that the rotary element should not be farther 
away from the stationary element than is necessary for the me- 
chanical safety of the machine. Each case should be considered 
separately, however, so turbine users should consult with the 
manufacturers of their machines if information regarding axial 
clearances is desired. 

With certain makes of turbines, particularly single-wheel im- 
pulse turbines, where the total pressure drop is utilized in one 
single expansion, considerable trouble has been experienced with 
erosion. This has been the case particularly with turbines in 
which the relative steam velocity was high — in other words, tur- 
bines having small wheel diameters or low speeds and operating 
condensing. Some difficulties have been experienced even with 
non-condensing turbines as weW, particularly where the steam has 
been wet. If superheated steam is used, erosion is less common. 
Blade materials now being used in various types of steam tur- 
bines utilizing high steam velocities are being improved so as 
better to resist the erosive action of the steam. Erosion is abso- 



86 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

lutely unknown with other types of turbines on account of the low 
steam velocities employed. Through erosion of the blade edges 
the axial clearance between the rotary and stationary elements 
is increased, which tends to cut down the power developed. 
Through the fact that these edges are made dull less perfect 
steam action is attained, which in turn causes a loss in power 
and efficiency. 

Deposits on Blades Liable When Forcing Boilers. The de- 
posits of foreign substances in the turbine blades, blocking or" 
partly blocking the passages, might be mentioned as another 
cause of impaired steam economy in turbines. 

This trouble usually occurs when a turbine is being fed by one 
or more boilers which are giving about their maximum capacity. 
It is more serious with some types of boilers than others. In 
both fire-tube and water-tube boilers there is such active circula- 
tion of water that the mud and foreign material are prevented 
from settling in the boiler and are mechanically lifted to the top 
and carried through the steam lines. 

In some steel-mill districts the deposit consists principally of 
a muddy material which is bound together by chemicals existing 
in the water. At the velocity at which steam enters the blades 
any slight material carried in the steam will be impelled against 
the blades with such a velocity that it will form a very compact 
deposit. In a great many instances the boiler-feed water supply 
contains large portions of vegetable matter, as well as boiler 
scale-forming materials. Where this is the case the combination 
produces a tough, rubber-like deposit which rapidly fills the 
turbine blades and causes serious trouble. 

Owing to the immense quantity of steam passing through large 
turbines a rapid increase of deposits may result even though the 
amount of material mechanically carried over by the boiler is 
very small per unit of power. It is, therefore, frequently aston- 
ishing to note the accumulated deposits when the steam is appar- 
ently quite pure and clean. Sometimes turbine blades become 
so clogged that sufficient power cannot be produced and the 
turbine has to be dismantled and cleaned. 

Steam that is very wet, when made from water containing scale- 
forming material, such as magnesia and other salts, will in- 
variably deposit a scale-like substance over the turbine blades. 
This is somewhat distinct from the deposits mentioned pre- 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 87 

viously. Tliere are other deposits whieli are more local in 
character, such as, for instance, deposits which occur in i)ai)cr- 
mill districts, where a considerable amount of pulp is discharged 
in a finely divided state into rivers adjacent. The result is that 
this finds its way into some neighboring power plant where, owing 
to its fine and light nature, it is carried over by the steam and 
very rapidly blocks u]) the turbine blades. Several cases have 
come to the writer's attention where this occurred, the turbine 
having to be dismantled at regular intervals and the blades 
cleaned out three or four times a year. 

There are various means of combating the clogging of blades 
from the above-mentioned causes which are effective in different 
degrees. One which is frequently used, particularly for non- 
condensing turbines, is the placing of a lubricator in the turbine 
steam line. The oil vapor in the steam lubricates the blade 
surfaces and prevents the substances from, becoming attached. 
Even for condensing turbines this method is frequently used, 
although it would appear not to be entirely advisable in installa- 
tions where surface condensers are used, on account of oil de- 
posits which would be found on the tubes. Two instances are 
known of where this method is used with turbines rated at 
10,000 kw. 

Undoubtedly the most effective means of preventing this 
trouble is that of installing a large receiver in the steam line. 
The steam velocity will be decreased greatly while passing 
through this receiver and the foreign substances will be deposited 
on the walls. In addition to the receiver there should be in- 
stalled near the turbine throttle a steam separator which will 
serve the double purpose of removing from the steam any re- 
maining foreign substances and extracting a great deal of mois- 
ture from the steam. It might in some cases be advisable to com- 
bine these two apparatus and install a so-called receiver-separa- 
tor, in which case the foreign materials will be deposited on the 
baffles. 

GETTING THE MOST OUT OF TURBO-GENERATORS 

With the advent of the modern horizontal-shaft steam-turbine 
generator, the ratio of the total kilowatt capacity to the cubical 
contents of power-plant engine rooms has increased at least two- 



88 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

fold or threefold. The necessity for adequate ventilation must, 
therefore, be recognized in order that a safe operating tempera- 
ture for the electrical apparatus may be maintained and extreme 
engine-room temperatures avoided for the comfort of the attend- 
ants, according to L. H. Parker and J. J. Preble of the Spray 
Engineering Company. 

The enormous quantity of air required for ventilating large 
generators is perhaps better understood when the actual weights 
are considered. Assume, for example, a 20,000-kva. machine 
requiring 65,000 cu. ft. (1840 cu. m.) of air per minute. As 
this amount of air weighs about 2^/^ tons, the generator will 
handle an amount of air equal in weight to its own weight in 
from one-half to three-quarters of an hour. 

While no one questions the necessity of supplying a generator 
with a sufficient amount of ventilating air, there are many who 
do not give the temperature and quality of the air sufficient con- 
sideration. The turbine manufacturers equip their machines 
with fans designed for handling the proper volume of air, but 
upon the consulting engineer, manager or superintendent of the 
plant falls the duty of seeing that adequate air-conditioning ap- 
paratus is installed, so that the machines will also receive cool and 
clean air. One effective device that can be used for this purpose 
is a properly designed water-spray type of air washer and cooler. 

Cleanliness and Temperature. Air in almost any locality 
contains considerable dust and dirt. In the vicinity of power 
plants it may be assumed that roughly one-hundred millionth of 
the volume af the air consists of dust, dirt and other foreign 
particles. This would mean that with a machine handling 65,000 
cu. ft. (1840 cu. m.) of air per minute, as mentioned heretofore, 
a total of 93,600,000 cu. ft. (2,650,000 cu. m.) would be handled 
in twenty-four hours. On this basis the amount of dirt passing 
through the machine in this period would be 0.936 cu. ft. (0.026 
cu. m.), or 86 cu. ft. (2.4 cu. m.) in three months. 

A certain proportion of this, because of air swirls and eddies, 
will necessarily be deposited in the air passages. Such deposits 
of dirt become a serious handicap to the ventilation. The air 
passages become partly clogged, causing a decrease in the quan- 
lity of air handled, and the cooling effect is greatly diminished 
owing to the fact that air cannot come in direct contact with the 
heat-radiating surfaces. Air taken from the inside of a power 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 89 

plant usually contains oily vapors, which make accumulations 
on the air passages rapid. 

Unwashed air means dirty generators and excessive heating, 
which not only reduces the electrical efficiency but shortens the 
life of the insulation. Unless the machines are taken apart and 
cleaned periodically-, grounds and even burn-outs are liable to 
occur. The cost of thoroughly cleaning a generator amounts to 
considerable, and under average conditions this has to be done 
about twice a year. The expense of dismantling and cleaning a 
10,000-kw. unit would be about $500 for each operation, without 
taking into consideration the revenue lost owing to the machine 
being out of commission. 

Since a generator which receives clean air is comparatively free 
from all such troubles, it is apparent that an air washer will 
practically eliminate any danger of a serious accident, with a 
resulting loss that might exceed many times the cost of the in- 
stallation. 

As all modern units are designed for a certain allowable maxi- 
mum temperature in the armature and field windings, the temper- 
ature of a generator with a given load will be a fixed amount 
above the temperature of the ingoing ventilating air, which must 
be well below the critical temperature of the insulation. The 
cooler the air delivered to a generator, therefore, the greater will 
be its load-carrying capacity. 

The permissible load on a turbo-alternator may, therefore, 
be expressed as a function of the temperature of the ingoing air. 
This relation ^ is given in Table based on representative 25-cycle 
and 60-cycle machines. The load is based on a fixed maximum 
temperature attained by any part of the windings. Since 25 
deg. C. (77 deg. Fahr.) is a standard air temperature for elec- 
trical machinery, the load at this temperature is taken at 100 
per cent. 

The cooling which can be obtained by the use of air washing 
and cooling equipment varies with the make and type of washer. 
For use with electrical equipment a washer should be capable of 
reducing the temperature of the entering air at least 85 per cent, 
of the initial wet-bulb depression. Table shows the cooling ef- 
fect with a washer of this class, using some of the higher tem- 
peratures given above, with different humidities. 

1 Curve given in General Electric Review, September, 191:^. 



90 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



It is possible, therefore, with this class of washer to increase 
the safe load-carrying capacity within the above temperature 
ranges from a maximum of 22 per cent, to a minimum of 3 per 
cent. With a washer that will cool to the wet-bulb temperature 



us. 








©€GQ©0O© 
©©©©©ooooooooooo 

OCOOOOOOOOOGOOOGOOOOOOOOOeOOOOO© 



Fig. 24 — Heat- Absorbing and Cleaning Ability of one Drop More than 

Trebled by Subdivision 

there is, of course, a further gain. Consequently, it is fair to 
assume that under average atmospheric conditions in the United 
States during the summer months the gain in load-carrying 
capacity would be at least 5 per cent. 

When Will it Pay to Install Air Washers? There are various 
ways of figuring whether an investment in air washers is actually 
justified. One way is considered in the following: Assume a 
typical modern steam-turbine power station containing three 
10,000-kw. turbo-generator units. A plant of this size would 
cost about $3,000,000 if built to-day. During the four summer 
months the permissible load on the generators would be reduced 
from full-load rating about 5 per cent, on the average, on account 
of the warm atmospheric conditions. In most stations it is either 
necessary or desirable to operate at rated full load during this 
period. 

In order to generate the full 30,000 kw. during the hot months 
it would, therefore, be necessary to do one of three things, (1) 
install air washers; (2) increase the size of the electrical end 
of the units, or (3) install a spare unit. For illustration it is 
sufficient to compare the first two. 

Each of the 10,000-kw. machines would require a washer of 
40,000-cu.-ft.-per-minute (1120 cu.-m.-per-minute) capacity, and 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 91 

the total cost of the tliree washers would be about $7,i30U. The 
fixed charges on this investment, including interest, taxes, insur- 
ance, maintenance and depreciation (taken at 15 per cent.), are 

Table I — Turuo-Alternator T^ad as a Function of Tncoinc-Aik 

Temperature 

( — Temperature of Injjoing Air — ^ Load in Percenla^^e of Load 

De<r. C. Do{T. Falir. at 25 De^. ('. 

5 41 123 

10 50 118 

15 59 112 

20 68 106 

25 77 100 

30 86 92 

35 95 82 

40 104 70 

$1,125 per annum. Adding to this $250, the operating cost of 
three 7^/^-hp. pump motors run one-third of the time, gives a total 
expense of $1,375 per year for the air-washer installation. 

On the other hand, if it be assumed that the size of the electri- 
cal-end equipment is increased 5 per cent, (which, of course, is 
low) so that full load may be carried at all times, the extra cost 
would be about $30,000, figured at $20 per kilowatt. The fixed 
charges on this, at 15 per cent., are $4,500. Adding to this the 
cost of dismantling and cleansing the machines once per year at 
$500 per unit, the total yearly expense would be $6,500. 

The net saving by installing air washers would therefore be 
$4,625 per annum for this 30,000-kw. station, or at the rate of 
about 151^^ cents per kilowatt per annum. In other words, even 

Table II — Cooling Effect with Spray-Type Washer 

Relative humidity, per cent 40 50 60 70 

Temperature of Entering Temperature of Air Tjeavino: Waslier, Deg. 

Air, Deg. Fahr. Fahr. (85 per Cent Wet-Bulb Depression) 

68 56 59 6OV2 621/2 

77 631/2 66 68 1/2 71 

86 71 74 77 70 

95 78 811/. 85 871/2 

104 • 86 89% 93 96 

on this conservative basis, the washers would pay for themselves 
in a little more than one and one-half years, without taking into 
account the benefits accruing from washed air, such as the insur- 
ance against accident and the losses incurred when the maeliines 
are out of commission for repairs and cleaning. 



92 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

When about to purchase an air washing and cooling apparatus 
for this service, there are several items which, from an engineer- 
ing standpoint, should not be overlooked. Merely to ask for 
a quotation on a washer of a certain capacity is comparable to 
asking for a quotation on a pump capable of handling a definite 
quantity of water, without regard to type, efficiency, speed or 
materials of construction. 

Characteristics Which Should Be Required in Air Washers. 
In order to be efficient as regards both cleansing and cooling, and 
properly constructed, it is of prime importance that : 

(1) The washer be provided with nozzles or other means of 
spraying the water, so that it will be finely atomized. The 
smaller the individual drops composing the spray, the greater 
will be the exposed surface for a given quantity of water. There- 
fore, both the cooling, due to evaporation, and the cleansing, due 
to the larger number of falling water particles, will be greatly 
increased. 

(2) High pressures should be avoided, and the centrifugal 
pumps used for recirculating the spray water should be designed 
for high efficiency, so that the expenditure of power will not be 
excessive. 

(3) The spray chamber should be completely filled with a 
dense mass of fine spray. Water curtains, or contrivances pro- 
ducing sheets of water, should be avoided, as, in order to pass, the 
air must necessarily punch holes in the sheet, which means that 
a considerable proportion of the air will not be properly cleaned 
or cooled. 

(4) Means should be provided for completely eliminating all 
free moisture from the air before it leaves the washer. This 
should be accomplished without the use of heater coils. 

(5) The materials used in the construction of the washer, as 
well as the workmanship, should assure long life. This require- 
ment is met in one type of washer by using nozzles of bronze, 
screens of copper, casing and water box of heavy galvanized iron ; 
eliminator plates, galvanized after fabrication; piping, galvan- 
ized; pump, bronze-fitted with inclosed impeller. 

(6) The drop in air pressure through the washer should not be 
excessive. The allowable resistance measured at the inlet end of 
most generators is %-in. (1.27-cm.) water gage, and the drop 
through the washer should therefore not exceed this, or the 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 93 

amount of air which can be handled will be diminished. The 
exact air requirements are usually given in the generator contract 
specifications or can be obtained from the manufacturers. 

By way of further explanation, it may be added that the spray 
chamber should be of proper depth and the velocity of the air low 
enough to allow sufficient time for contact between the air and 
water spray. Obviously, the more efficient the nozzle, the higher 
the permissible air velocity, and consequently the more compact 
the air washer. Economy of space is of great importance in 
power plant work. Nozzles which produce a full conical spray 
of finely divided particles of water at medium operating pres- 
sures are well adapted for this class of work. Spray-atomizing 
screens are used advantageously on one of the well-known makes 
of washers in order to increase the atomization of the water. 

Not long ago there were very few, if any, water-spray-type air- 
conditioning outfits used in connection with the ventilation of 
electrical machinery. To-day there are several hundred power 
plants in this country equipped with air washing and cooling 
apparatus, including practically all of the large well-known 
stations. The resulting gain in efficiency and capacity, the sav- 
ing in maintenance and the longer life of the machines to which 
they are attached make the installation of air washers inevitable 
in all progressive and up-to-date power plants. 

INCREASING GENERATOR RATING BY PRECOOLING 

VENTILATING AIR 

The question of whether to install air washers or humidifiers 
for conditioning and cooling the air entering generators is par- 
ticularly pertinent at this time, writes Joseph T. Foster of the 
Public Service Electric Company of New Jersey, since by cooling 
this air the generator capacity may be increased from 10 to 20 
per cent. Furthermore, by cleaning the air possible shut-downs 
for generator cleaning and, what is more serious, possible burn- 
outs due to h'eavily loaded, dirty machines, may be avoided. 
Obviously, then, this is the quickest and cheapest method of in- 
creasing power plant capacity. 

The purpose of central station companies in including the air 
washer as standard equipment on turbo-generator installations is 
twofold : 



94 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



1. For supplying clean air, free from dust which would coat 
the windings of the generator and form an insulating covering. 

2. For precooling the air by evaporation of water when the air 
passes through the film of water atomized by the spray nozzles. 

Before air-washing equipment was used it was found that the 
dust and dirt incidental to the unloading of coal and the disposal 
of ashes fouled the generator by coating the air passages. It was 
therefore necessary to shut down the generator at least once a 
year for a period of five or six days for cleaning purposes. In 
addition to the expense of cleaning, there was the inconvenience 
and loss of revenue due to shutting down the unit. 

Some idea of the cleansing effected by a modern-type air 
washer can be gained from tests which showed that it was possible 

















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Cdpiicity in Kv.A. Cost of Washer and Duct inst<3l led 

Fig. 25 — Relation Between Kva. Rating, Amount of Cooling Air Re- 
quired pe:r Minute, Cost of Air Washer and Cost of Washer 

Installed Complete 



to blow several pounds of soot per minute into the intake and 
have the air at the generator inlet perfectly free from dust. 

There is a more or less widespread belief that the humidifying 
of the air increases its cooling capacity on the ground that wet 
air, on account of its higher specific heat, has greater heat-absorb- 
ing properties. The effect of this change in specific heat is negli- 
gible as far as heat absorption is concerned, because the weight of 
water vapor present even in saturated air is very small as com- 
pared with the weight of the air itself. The difference in the 
amount of heat absorbed by saturated air as compared with dry 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 



95 



air under a given set of conditions is not more than 1 or 2 per 
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96 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

The precooling action of the air washer is, however, of import- 
ance. Assume a 12-500-kva. unit which requires 30,000 cu. ft. 
(850 cu. m.) of cooling air per minute and in which the losses 
amount to approximately 300 kw. at full load. The heat ab- 
sorbed per hour, assuming a final temperature of 100 deg. Fahr. 
(37.8 deg. C), neglecting the moisture in the air, will be as fol- 
lows : 

I. Air not precooled and entering the generator at 68 deg. 
Fahr., 0.24 X 0.07524 X 1,800,000 (100 — 68) = 1,040,000 B.t. 
u. 's per hour. 

II. Air originally at 68 deg. Fahr., but cooled in the washer to 
53 deg. Fahr., 0.24 X 0.07788 X 1,800,000 (100 — 53) =1,580,- 
000 B.t.u. 's per hour. 

In the first case, the losses absorbed amount to 1,040,000 B.t.u. 's 
per hour, or 305 kw. ; in the second to 1,580,000 B.t.u. 's per hour, 
or 463 kw. It may be assumed with fair accuracy that the losses 
are proportional to the squares of the currents ; therefore, I'^'/l^ 
== 463/305, or /g = 1.23/i. The terminal voltage is, of course, 
constant, hence the kilowatt output when the air is precooled will 
be theoretically 23 per cent greater than with air at the higher 
temperature. It is more probable, however, that in practice the 
gain under the conditions stated would amount to 15 per cent, 
although gains of 20 to 25 per cent have been realized even 
where the natural conditions were particularly adverse. 

The gain in generating capacity obtained by precooling the 
ventilating air is large, but is obtained by the expenditure of a 
comparatively small amount of money, as shown in Fig. 25. 

The use of the chart is illustrated by the following : 

Problem. — Given a 25,000-kva. generator, to find the amount of 
cooling air required, the cost of the air washer and the cost of the 
washer installed in place. 

Solution. — From the intersection of the vertical line through 
25,000 kva. and the curve, run horizontally to the vertical scale. 
The required air is 58,000 cu. ft. (1640 cu. m.) per minute. Run- 
ning horizontally to the intersection with the first curve, read on 
the upper scale the cost of the air washer as $2,050. Running 
horizontally to the second curve, read on the lower scale $5,500 as 
the cost of the complete installation. 

An illustration of an air-washer installation used in connec- 
tion with a turbine plant is shown in Fig. 26. The air, which is 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 97 

drawn through louvers and screens at tlie left, passes tlirough the 
washer and then through the generator, from which it is dis- 
charged direct to the forced-draft blowers in the boiler-house 
basement. 

This method of operation is employed during summer weather 
when it is desired to obtain the coolest air possible for the gen- 
erator. The discharge to the forced draft blowers of this quan- 
tity of heated air improves the boiler efficiency somewhat and 
maintains a lower turbine-room temperature. 

Under winter conditions the louver opening in the outside wall 
is closed by a rolling door and the air is drawn into the washer 
from the turbine room through the side door and discharged from 
the generator bypass through the sliding door provided for that 
purpose. Under these conditions the door into the boiler-room 
basement is closed. 

This method of recirculating the air from the turbine room 
keeps the room at a comfortable temperature. It also does away 
with the inconvenience of having a partial vacuum in the turbine 
room due to the removal of large quantities of air from an in- 
closed space. 

The washer to be purchased by the engineer should be of the 
size specified or recommended by the generator manufacturer, of 
the heaviest and most durable material, and able to cool the air 
to at least 85 per cent of the difference between the wet and dry 
bulbs. At the same time the air resistance through the washer 
should not exceed 0.375 in. (9.3 mm.) of water and the power 
consumption should be kept down to a minimum. 

CHARTING INSTRUCTIONS TO GET BETTER 
ECONOMIES 

Realizing that the over-all efficiency of its station will reach its 
maximum if the various generating units are combined to run at 
the most economical loads for the particular load condition en- 
countered, the Moline-Rock Island Manufacturing Company, 
Davenport, Iowa, has worked out a scheme for showing its plant 
operators how to combine the generators to get the best results. 
Tests were run •on the units to determine their efficiencies in 
terms of steam consumption at various loads within their ratings. 
While the results of these tests (Fig. 27) can be used by any one 



98 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



having technical skill and judgment to determine the proper com- 
bination of machines to carry any load, the company desired to 



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Fig. 27 — Steam Consumption of Different Units 



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Fig. 28 — Portion of Log Sheet Used by Davenport (Iowa) Company 

Curves Nos. 1 and 5 represent the water rates and total steam consump- 
tion of a 3000-kw. turbine at 100 per cent power factor and deg. super- 
heat; Nos. 2 and 6 represent the corresponding quantities for a 6000-kw. 
turbine at 90 per cent power factor and 100 deg. superheat; Nos. 3 and 7, 
the values for a 10,000-kw. turbine at 95 per cent power factor and 100 deg. 
superheat, and Nos. 4 and 8, the values for a 20,000-kva. turbine at 80 per 
cent power factor and 125 deg. superheat. 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 



99 



present the information in such form that any operator, regard- 
less of his technical judgment, may determine instantly what to 
do under ordinary conditions. Consequently all of the more 
common operating conditions that are likely to arise are listed in 
a table like that shown herewith, giving the combinations of units 
to use and the loads on which each unit shall be operated. With 
this table the operator needs to do no figuring and does not even 
have to consult the curve sheet. 

As a detail in connection with the actual making of these charts 
and curves, it is interesting to observe that the tabulated data arc 
blue-printed on separate sheets and then pasted on the curve 
sheet. This saves time in changing the tracings as well as the 
curve sheets when changes in the operating schedule are neces- 
sary. 



Chart of Turbines to Operate at Different Loads to Relieve Operator 
FROM Necessity of Relying on His Own Judgment 

K\v. Load per Respective 
K\v. Load Units in Service Unit 

Up to 1750 3,000 Total load 

1,750-4,500 
4,500-8,000 
10,000 



12,000 
14,000 
16,000 



18,000 



20,000 



22,800 



6,000 
10,0001 
10,000 

6,000 


Total load 
Total load 
8,000- 9,000 
2,000- 1,000 


10,000 
6,000 


0,000- 8,000 
3,000- 4,000 


10,000 
6,000 


10,000- 9,000 
4,000- 5,000 


10.000 
6,000 
3,000 


10,500-11,000 

5,300- 4,800 

200 


10,000 
6,000 
3,000 


11,500-11,000 

6,300- 6,800 

200 


10,000 
6,000 
3,000 


12,000 

7,200 

800 


10,000 
6,000 
3,000 


12,000 
7,200 
3,600 



1 If two units are used run 6,000 at 200 kw. 



100 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

Of next importance to providing proper instructions for han- 
dling various loads is the matter of seeing that the instructions 
are carried out intelligently. The officers of the company keep 
in touch with this situation through a system of daily power- 
house reports. In addition to the usual data asked for on daily 
power-house reports, these reports call for the load curves from 
each of the plants, the total load curve and a graphical statement 
of the hours of operation and of each turbine and boiler unit. 
A part of one of these reports is reproduced herewith. The hor- 
izontal lines drawn through the load curves are the feature of the 
report. Each line, it may be observed, is opposite the designa- 
tion of a turbine or boiler unit at the right margin of the page. 
The length and position of these lines indicate what machines 
were used at each hour, and also show in definite relation to the 
load curve how accurately instructions have been carried out. 
The lines used to show boiler operation also show whether the 
boiler was steaming or was banked. 

B. J. Denman, president of the Moline-Rock Island Manu- 
facturing Company, is a strong believer in the value of this 
method of charting operating methods. He has applied it in 
the past to other plants under his direction, and each time im- 
proved economy has resulted. 

HOW TO REDUCE COST OF STATION REGULATOR 

Conditions with the Dayton (Ohio) Power & Light Company 
made it seem necessary to regulate the voltage on circuits sup- 
plying station lighting in the new power house at Miller 's Ford. 
To keep from buying a high-voltage regulator to operate at the 
generator potential of 6600 volts the scheme of connections illus- 
trated here was worked out. From the 6600-volt bus these cir- 
cuits were taken through the 200-kva., 6600/230 and 115-volt 
transformer which fed all station lighting circuits. In the out- 
side lines of the three-wire secondary of this unit was connected 
a series boosting transformer with a ratio of ten to one, the high- 
voltage winding being designed for 230 volts and the low voltage 
for a total of 23 volts, 11.5 volts in each half. The high-voltage 
winding of the boosting transformer receives from volt to 230 
volts from one winding of a low voltage one-to-one ratio induc- 
tion regulator, the other winding of the regulator being energized 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 



101 



from tlie outside lines of the secondaries of the main 200-kva. 
transformer. Connections to the contact-making voltmeter as 



eeoo-\^ Bus 



.W AV». eeoa/F30y Main Lighting Transformer 



Neutral 




Series Boosting Transformer 
.Ratio?iO-V todS'V 



11.5 V 



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115 V 






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210 V — - 



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Regulator 
Ratio II 



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Lighting 



Contact Malting 
Voltmeter 



Fig. 29 — Eegulator Arrangements Made to Avoid Buying High-Voltage 

Unit 

shown completed the job. The unit is now operating satisfac- 
torily. 



TRACK SCALES SAVE THEIR COST IN VERY SHORT 

TIME 

E. S. Hig'ht of the Illinois Traction System, Peoria, 111., which 
operates light and power properties in many cities in the Middle 
West, is a firm believer in the value of track scales for central- 
station companies. Several properties of this company have 
bought track scales and installed them at their plants. When a 
car of coal is received it is weighed before being dumped. If the 
track scales show that the car contains only 88,000 lb. (40,000 
kg.) of coal, while the invoice shows that it contains 100,000 lb. 
(45,000 kg.), the central-station company pays for only 88,000 
lb. (40,000 kg.) of coal. The money which it has saved through 
this process, Mr, Hight says, will soon pay the cost of the scales. 

When this view was recently presented before the Iowa Section, 
National Electric Light Association, the question arose as to 
whether this plan should be employed where the contract which 
the central-station company had with its coal company specified 



102 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

that the coal was to be paid for at "mine weight." Mr. Ilig-ht 
expressed the opinion that this provision in the contract carried 
little weight if the central-station company through the use of 
track scales showed that car weights were short. He said further 
that he believes no coal company would go into court with a case 
where accurate records kept by central-station companies showed 
that the weight of cars at the central station was less than it 
was represented to be at the mine. 

TEAM SYSTEM IS THOUGHT TO BE BEST 
LABOR SOLUTION 

Labor conditions affecting public utilities are as difficult at 
Youngstown, Ohio, as at any point in the country, according to 
H. W. Bromley, engineer of power production for the Mahoning 
& Shenango Railway & Light Company. As a result of this the 
company has come to the policy of paying wages as high as any 
of the neighboring industries, including the steel mills. Com- 
mon labor, which two years ago was paid 17.5 cents an hour, is 
now getting 54 cents an hour. Watch engineers are being paid 
$173.50 per month for nine-hour-a-day shifts ; switchboard men 
receive 52 cents an hour and work nine hours; oilers and water 
tenders are paid 45 cents and 51 cents an hour respectively, and 
foremen are paid from 45 cents to 48 cents an hour. Besides be- 
ing expensive, this labor is difficult to handle, and constant fric- 
tion arises. 

Bonus systems have been tried, but without success. The lat- 
est plan, and the one which seems to Mr. Bromley to be destined 
to give the best results, is one which he calls the team system. 
With this plan a foreman paid 70 cents an hour is placed in 
charge of five or six men. This unit is called a team. The fore- 
man is held responsible for the quantity and quality of work 
done by the team as well as for destruction of material by its 
members. The teams are usually chosen so that all of the men 
in each unit, including the foreman, are of the same nationality. 
The real bosses of the job then talk to the foremen, but never to 
the men. This plan gives the foreman a good opportunity to 
keep in close touch with all members of his team and to bring out 
their best efforts. Of all the groups employed under this system 
negroes are said to have accomplished the best results. 



THE BOILER AND ENGINE ROOMS 103 

A PLACE FOR GAS ENGINES 

In many electric service systems there are frequency changers 
or synchronous condensers at various points that miprht be util- 
ized to help carry increased loads without much additional invest- 
ment, says Henry M, Trench, a construction engineer. Since 
these units are usually situated at the tie-in points between sys- 
tems or at centers of distribution, the conditions are almost ideal 
for their operation as generators. To permit this little additional 
equipment is needed besides some internal-combustion engines 
(gas or oil, depending on which is more convenient to use) to 
drive the units. 

Where such machines are installed a clutch or other mechanical 
connection may be inserted between them and the internal-com- 
bustion engine so that they may be engaged or disengaged as con- 
ditions require. With this arrangement the units may be used 
for their original purpose or as generators whenever desired. 
The engine attached to a motor-generator should be rated at the 
combined capacities of the motor and generator so that both may 
be driven as generators. Starting of such reserve plants could 
be made automatic if desired, since power would always be avail- 
able to start the outfits from the generator end. 



SECTION II 
THE SYSTEM 

ECONOMY IN ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION 

In order to get the maximum use from existing apparatus 
greater effort must be made to study the losses in distribution and 
to reduce them by the best means, writes W. B. Stelzner, "When 
automatic voltage regulators are used on lighting feeders, for 
instance, it may be possible to open the primary circuits during 
the light load period and thus save 75 per cent of the iron loss. 

It is generally known if the primary lines of a distribution 
system are too small an excessive copper loss results, but it is not 
so well understood that if the voltage at the load is low the power 
is correspondingly decreased and a definite loss of revenue occurs. 
Larger conductors are thus required. In the case of low-tension 
circuits, however, line losses may often be reduced and the service 
improved by changing the transformer locations. Another seri- 
ous obstacle to economical distribution is low power factor at the 
load, which causes high line losses and seriously limits the capac- 
ity of the wires. This condition may usually be attributed to the 
operation of induction motors on the system at only partial load, 
and is obviously best corrected by rearrangement of the motors or 
if this is not feasible by the use of synchronous motors. 

An analysis of the losses on the lines of a company of medium 
size was recently made and some of the results are here reviewed 
in order to show the economic importance of these losses in the 
distribution of electricity. The losses that will be discussed are : 
the high-tension-line copper loss, the low-tension-line copper loss, 
the induction regulator losses and the transformer losses. The 
copper losses will apply to the conditions obtaining for the aver- 
age winter load. 

The system studied includes a generating station connected by 
four lines to a substation from which emanate three lighting feed- 
ers and one power feeder. These feeders are equipped with sin- 

104 



THE SYSTEM 



105 



gle-phase regulators and supply current at approximately 2400 
volts. A synchronous converter also supplies a railway load from 
the substation. 

High-Tension-Line Copper Loss. The high-tension-line cop- 
per loss is given in Fig. 30, which shows the condition existing in 
one of the lighting feeders. The curves show this loss to be 98 
kw.-hr. for a twenty-four-hour period, or 16.6 per cent of the 



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1500 

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— A- Totcfl input to tie lines 

— B- Total input to station 2 

— A-B-Tie line losses 

— B-C- Feeder line and 

_ transformer losses 
_ C- Output to low-tension AC 
fines and input to synchr- 
onous converter 

~ A-C- Total hicjii-tension 

— losses 

— D- Efficiency 




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Figs. 30 and 31 — Loss Curves for Single-Phase Feeder and Efficiency 

OF High-Tension System 
Maximum copper loss occurs at peak load and may thus limit rating of 
line. Iron losses are ever present, however. 



energy sold in the same time. This large line loss is accompanied 
by an excessive pressure drop with the result that the pressure at 
the load is below normal and a direct loss in the sale of energy 
ensues. When the load current is 51 amp., the regulator reaches 
the position of maximum boost and any increase in load current 
produces a fall of voltage, entailing a loss of revenue. 

In this case the obvious remedy is to increase the size of wire 
in order to reduce the line drop sufficiently to permit the induc- 
tion regulator to hold the voltage up to normal. The loss of 



106 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

energy may be calculated at the rate of 7 cents per kilowatt-hour, 
assuming that the added cost of supplying this energy would be 
small. As will be noticed, the line copper loss is appreciable only 
between 5 and 10 o'clock in the evening. Although this loss 
occurs at the peak load, a possible minimum value for the loss, the 
cost of coal, might be 0.5 cent per kilowatt-hour. Using pre-war 
prices for material and labor and an annual charge of 10 per cent 
for interest, depreciation, insurance and taxes, the saving by re- 
placing the No. 6 wire used with No. 2 is as follows : 

No. 6 B. & S. Wire No. 2 B. & S. Wire 

Cost of wire as installed to Cost of wire $602.00 

point a, Fig. 5 $239.00 Changing wires 80.00 

$682.00 
Credit for removed wire. . . . 75.00 



Cost of change $607.00 

24-hr. capital charge .00 .17 

24-hr. cost of line loss .49 .19 

24-hr. loss due to low voltage 3.36 .00 



Total 24-hr. change $3.91 $0.36 

The calculations indicating the economy resulting from the 
selection of a No. 2 wire for this circuit are summarized in the 
following tabulation : 

Wire Size, B. & S. Gage 4 2 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 
Additional capital required for 

change to above wire size . . $385 $607 $985 $1,235 $1,545 $1,955 

Total twenty-four-hour charge $0.40 $0.36 $0.40 $0.43 $0.49 $0.60 

The No. 2 wire carries the smallest charge and the capital expen- 
diture required in its installation will be recovered within one 
year's time owing to the decrease in operating costs. The econ- 
omy resulting from the substitution of the larger wire is very 
evident. 

Low-Tension-Line Copper Loss. The low-tension-line drop 
is probably the most important element in maintaining a high 
standard of service. This is apparent when it is considered 
that by means of voltage and power-factor regulators the pres- 
sure of the high-tension lines can be controlled. With a well- 
designed system and under efficient operation these regulators 
give practically constant voltage at the distributing centers. Es- 



THE SYSTEM 



107 



pecially is this true when lighting feeders are maintained separate 
from the power feeders. Such apparatus is not used on the low- 
tension lines and the regulation at the loads is therefore deter- 
mined almost altogether by the low-tension-line drop. 

The line losses in the low-tension circuit are indicated in Fig. 



1000 



«n 800 
o 



600 



400 



200 





























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e 7 a 

R. M. 

Fig. 32 — Low-Tension-Line Loss 



10 



Curve A for the circuit shown in Fig. 34 with transformer at a; curve B 
with transformer at c. 

32. These data give the copper loss in the line wires and service 
leads and show the influence on the losses of the design of the 
circuit. The information may also be presented as follows : 

Curve A Curve B 

Transformer size (kva.) 20 20 

Energy sold (kw.-hr.) 90.7 90.7 

Line loss (kw.-hr.) 3.94 2.39 

Per cent lost 4.2 2.6 

A comparison of curves A and B indicates which is the most 
economical location for the transformer feed-in point. This is a 
most important consideration both with regard to the losses and 
to the regulation at the loads. The cost of moving this trans- 
former to the position indicated would be $5.50, a sum fully war- 
ranted in view of the improvement in losses and regulation. A 
further change that might be warranted would be to change the 
size of wires ab and Z)c. In some cases other considerations may 
govern the selection of the transformer location, and position a. 
Fig. 34 may be chosen. In this event the change in wire sizes 
must be made or the circuit may be sectionalized and another 
transformer installed. 

Power Factor. The powder factor of a circuit depends not 



108 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

only upon its characteristics but those of the apparatus connected 
to it. To transmit 100 kw. at 2400 volts single-phase would re- 
quire a line current of 41.6 amp. if the power factor is unity, and 
a current of 52 amp. if the power factor is 0.80. Due to this 
increased current at reduced power factor, the copper loss in 
apparatus and lines is increased in proportion to the square of 
the decrease in the power factor. Low power factors, therefore, 
mean greater losses, lower capacity and decreased economy in 
distribution. The power factor of a circuit may be changed by a 
rearrangement of motors and loads, so that all induction motors 
will be operating under approximately normal load conditions, 
or synchronous machines may be used of sufficient rating to con- 
trol the power factor of the circuit. 

For the circuits involved in this study the power factor of the 
lighting feeders averaged 0.92 at peak load and 0.42 at no load. 
The power feeder, owing to lightly loaded induction motors and 
transformers, had an average power factor of 0.52. The power 
factor of the tie lines was usually kept above 0.90 by over-excita- 
tion of the synchronous machine supplying the railway load. 

Fig. 33 gives the loss in the tie lines for two loads, a day load 
and a night load, and shows how this loss would vary with the 
power factor. Suppose an induction motor-generator set were 
used in the substation and that this should result in a tie-line 
power factor of 0.85 for the night load and 0.70 for the day load. 
Then results would be as follows : 

Loss Due to 
Resulting Reduced 
Actual Loss Assumed Loss Power Factor 

Time ( Kw. ) Powder Factor ( Kw. ) ( Kw. ) 

7 p. m 108 0.85 141 33 

10 a. m 66 0.70 117 51 

The reduction in line loss by power-factor correction, with its 
accompanying effects on the pressure regulation at the substation 
and on the capacity of the tie lines, measures the economic value 
of power-factor control and its influence in the selection of power 
equipment. 

Voltage Regulation. Pressure regulation is involved in all 
distribution problems and it is an important factor in electric 
service. Good regulation means minimum losses and maximum 
sale of energy. 

By separating the lighting and the power loads and supplying 



THE SYSTEM 



109 



them by different feeders, as is done in the system studied, indi- 
vidual control of each is possible and the best regulation may be 
secured. To accomplish this automatic voltage regulators are 
required for each circuit. 

The fluctuating power loads produce power factor and current 
variations in the tie lines, and these two effects combined with 






120 



§■100 
o 

S 80 



i- 



60 

















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^ 


y 


















.?• 


^A 


















^ 


r 


















y 


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y 


y' 
















^ \ 


















i( 


5>1 


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100 95 90 85 bO 75 70 

Per Cent. Power Factor 

Fig. 33 — Variation ob^ Tie-Line Lo.ss with Power Factor 



variations in the generated voltage determine the fluctuations of 
the pressure at the substation bus. This pressure may be con- 
trolled by the use of an automatic voltage regulator in connec- 
tion with the synchronous machine in the substation, as in this 
way the power factor may be held constant. A similar regulator, 
if required, installed at the power station would control the pres- 
sure generated there. 

Induction Regulator Losses. The loss in energy sold due to 
low voltage at the load, as shown by Fig. 30, is caused by resist- 
ance of the line. The loss is kept as low as that given by means 
of the boosting action of the induction regulator, increasing the 
phase pressure from 2400 to 2600 volts. The influence of the 
regulator in controlling this loss is determined as follows : 

Energy delivered to the circuit as installed (kw.-hr.) 757. S 

Energy that would be delivered without regulator (kw.-hr.) 62(5.0 



Difference during the period of twenty-four hours (kw.-hr.) 



131.8 



This indicates the decided usefulness of the regulator even with- 
out considering its chief function of improving regulation. 



110 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



The regulator which was under consideration was rated at 11.5 
kw., 2200 volts, 50-amp. secondary. It was an old design with a 
tested iron loss of 400 watts and a copper loss at rated load of 
187 watts. The high iron loss is partly due to the fact that it is 
subjected to a pressure 9.1 per cent in excess of that for which it 



20 



16 



12 



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Transform 
at a. 


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wire b \ 


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236 232 



228 224 
S e r V i c e 



2I& 



214 



210 



220 
Voltage 

Fig. 34 — Voltage at Service Connections 
Full line shows number of services receiving a given voltage at peak load. 
Dotted line shows the improvement resulting from moving transformer 
from a to c. 

was designed. The exciting current was found to be 2 amp. 

For a regulator of modern design the iron loss would be about 

160 watts and the exciting current 1.89 amp. 

A comparison of the losses for a year 's time gives the following 

results : 

Old Regulator New Regulator 
Annual cost of iron loss $17.51 $6.57 



Annual cost of copper loss 



2.61 



4.53 



Total annual loss $20.12 



$11.10 



or an annual saving in losses of $9.02 in favor of the modern de- 
sign. This saving alone, however, would not justify the in- 
creased capital expenditure required to make the change. 

The greatest economy in this case would be realized by install- 
ing switches in the shunt coils of the regulators so they may be 
disconnected during the nineteen hours per day of light or no 
load. This would result in an annual saving in iron loss of 
$13.75 per phase or $41.25 per feeder. Assuming a three-pole 
switch, installed, to cost $75 and an annual charge of 13 per cent, 



THE SYSTEM 111 

we have an annual charge of $9.75 on the switch. The net sav- 
ing, if the switch is used, amounts to $31.50 per feeder per year. 
The iron loss of all transformers on one circuit amounts to 1.2 kw. 
At a cost of 0.5 cent per kilowatt-hour the annual cost of this loss 
is $52.60. With rated voltage at each transformer and with 
transformers of modern design the annual cost of the iron loss 
would be $-1:7.80, a saving of $4.80 per year. Obviously this sav- 
ing alone would not justify the replacement of these transformers 
with others of the proper voltage rating. 

Summary of Losses. In order to show the relative magni- 
tude of the losses as studied, the following table applying to one 
circuit is given for the twenty-four-hour period considered. 

Transformer iron loss (kw.-lir.) 28.8 

Regulator iron loss (kw.-lir.) 9.6 

Total iron loss (kw.-lir.) 38.4 

Per cent of total loss 20 

Transformer copper loss (kw.-hr.) 12.5 

Regulator copper loss (kw.-hr.) 1.4 

Line copper loss (kw.-lir.) 08.0 

Total (kw.-hr.) 111.9 

Per cent of total losses 50 

Loss due to low voltage (kw.-hr.) 48.0 

Per cent of total loss 24 

Total loss (kw.-hr.) 198.3 

Total input ( kw.-hr. ) 788.4 

Total output to low-tension lines (kw.-hr.) 590.0 

All-day efficiency, per cent 75 

The total losses in the high-tension system are as follows : 

Kw.-hr. 

Energy to tie lines 21 ,440 

Energy to bus at substation 20,300 

Loss in tie lines 1,080 

Loss in feeders, regulators and transformers 1,114 

Total loss 2,194 

Conclusions. Knowledge of the actual losses and their dis- 
tribution over the system is essential to the most economical 
operation. Such data show just where more copper is needed, 
where copper may be removed, where to install regulators and 
power-factor-correcting devices, the most economical location of 
transformers, etc. In other words, a knowledge of the distribu- 



112 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

tion losses is necessary for the most effective use of the system or 
the production of maximum service at a minimum cost. 

The line copper loss, since it varies with the square of the load 
current, is likely to be serious. The gradual growth in load may 
result in large line losses or changes in the distribution of the 
load may result in idle copper. A survey of the losses reveals 
these conditions and leads to their correction. 

The iron losses are kept low on this system by reason of the fact 
that the transformers are so spaced as to supply rather large 
areas. In this way larger as well as fewer transformers are used 
with a resulting reduction of iron losses and exciting current. 
This practice also results in a lower investment in transformers. 
Another advantage lies in the fact that by supplying the larger 
area a reduction in transformer rating is possible because of the 
diversity factor of the connected load. In some cases, however, 
these economies may be more than offset by the losses in the low- 
tension lines. Economies can be obtained by using larger trans- 
formers and increasing the distance between them when such a 
policy is consistent with the investment carried in the low- 
tension mains. 

Power-factor correction on lines carrs'ing loads of low inherent 
power factor results in a material saving in line loss and line 
capacity and a decided improvement in regulation. 

The value of a study of the losses encountered in the distribu- 
tion of electricity is made apparent by considering the fact that 
the ultimate cost of the product depends on the efficiency of the 
system. High efficiency, though a desirable attribute, cannot 
always be fully realized if the system is to have its greatest value. 
Low capital cost is essential to low production cost and low cap- 
ital costs are influenced by losses as well as by diversity, load 
factor, available funds, etc. On the other hand, a mistaken econ- 
omy in capital costs may act to seriously impede the development 
of the system. While no system can be laid down as commer- 
cially complete, the engineer must look, although it may be far 
into the future, to what would probably be the demand if the 
whole energy consumption of the district were supplied elec- 
trically. 

The rapid growth in the load so often experienced illustrates 
the necessity for a rather generous attitude on the part of the 
public toward the utility in order that this increase may be prop- 



THE SYSTEM 113 

erly taken care of and the best interest of both public and com- 
pany conserved. 

TREND OF PRACTICE IN OVERHEAD DISTRIBUTION 

In keeping with the spirit of the times, the transmission and 
distribution committee of the Ohio Electric Light Association 
has pointed out that the most important factor in distribution 
systems is the economical and efficient use of all apparatus and 
materials. This it is believed, would lead to a standardization 
of all materials. Usually a distribution system grows by the ad- 
dition of transformers and secondaries. Then as the system ex- 
pands it generally requires complete revision. The most notice- 
able condition is the great number of small transformers which 
have been installed. These should be replaced by several large 
transformers, of which the advantages are enumerated below : 

1. The investment in transformers is less because of the smaller 
cost per kva. of the larger transformer. 

2. The core loss is less and therefore the efficiency is greater. 

3. The number of lightning arresters is reduced. 

4. The transformer capacity might be reduced because of the 
greater diversity of load which occurs with the larger number of 
consumers supplied from a single transformer. 

5. Transformers should be installed about 1700 ft. (518 m.) 
apart in residence sections to insure the economical use of a 
distribution system. 

The secondary system should be rebuilt, using three-wire 230- 
volt circuits for all street mains. Great care must be exercised 
to provide a balanced condition of the load. The neutral wire 
in a balanced system may be two sizes smaller than the outside 
wires. The voltage drop of a balanced three-wire system is one- 
fourth that of a two-wire system, other conditions remaining the 
same in both systems. 

ECONOMY OF WATER EFFECTED BY INTER- 
CONNECTION 

It is well known that it is a business necessity for every elec- 
tric power cdmpany to give special stud}^ to the finding of possible 
economies. In order that the greatest amount of conservation be 



114 CUTTING CENTBAL STATION COSTS 

possible, it is essential, writes R, H. Halpenny, Electrical Engi- 
neer, Southern Sierras Power Company, that companies operat- 
ing in the same or adjacent territory make a study of load con- 
ditions peculiar to each with a view toward determining what 
possible economical advantage is to be had by an interconnection 
of the systems. There are valleys in the daily load curve of the 
Nevada-California Power Company that allow the plants operat- 
ing on that system to deliver 6000 kva. to the Southern Sierras 
Power Company system through the three-phase tie-in trans- 
former, and to do this without the use of any greater quantity 
of water than that required by the Southern Sierras plants oper- 
ating on the same stream. 

When two or more companies make use of both hydro-electric 
and steam-electric generating plants it is often possible to profit 
by the dissimilarity in the load curves of each company to effect a 
saving in fuel by the more advantageous use of available excess 
hydro power resulting from an interconnection of the systems. 
By such interconnections of their systems various groups of power 
companies in this country have made possible the use of great 
quantities of coal and fuel oil for other purposes. A typical in- 
terconnected group is that of southern California. The magni- 
tude of the resultant fuel conservation and the extensive char- 
acter of the interconnection have been presented to the readers of 
the Electrical World in the interesting article of R. J. C. "Wood 
in the issue of Aug. 24, 1918. 

It is not the intention here to deal with the subject of fuel 
conservation as accomplished by the tying together of a number 
of large systems. It is proposed instead to describe an intercon- 
nection of two electrical systems that makes possible the greatest 
economy in the use of the same storage water by certain of the 
generating plants of both systems. 

On a small stream on the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada 
mountains the Nevada- California Power Company developed 
storage facilities and installed three hydroelectric plants during 
the period 1905 to 1908. Typical of many streams in the Sierra 
Nevada range this one, known as Bishop Creek, is served by a 
watershed of considerable area and has a rapid fall, dropping 
more than a mile (1.6 km.) in 14 miles (22 km.) of length. The 
area comprising the watershed is about 39 sq. miles (10,000 hec- 
tares) in extent and is made up of three separate run-off areas 



THE SYSTEM 



115 



from which issue the North, IMiddle and South Forks of the creek. 
Natural storage sites on the south and middle branches of the 
creek were utilized, and by the construction of dams a total 
storage capacity of 21,000 acre-feet (25,800,000 cu.m.) was de- 
veloped. 

The natural flow of the stream varies from 20 second-feet (0.6 



^'OALV. IRON PIPE 




^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^??^^^^^ 



Fig. 35 — Cross Section of Outdoor Control Substation at Junction of 

Inter-Connected Lines 

cu.m. per second) to 700 second-feet (20 cu.m. per second) at dif- 
ferent seasons of the 3'ear, and it is evident from this that storage 
is essential for the continuous operation of generating plants; 
in fact, during four months in the year it is necessary to depend 
on storage water to a very large extent. 

Two transmission lines were built into Nevada for the purpose 
of serving the mining district in and around Goldfield, Tonopah, 
Manhattan and other southern Nevada mining towns. This 
transmission sj-stem, with a mileage of 270 miles (430 km.), is of 
wood-pole construction and is operated at 55,000 volts ''Y, " with 
neutral solidly grounded at generating stations and substations. 

Systems Interconnected. During the years 1912-1913 the 
Southern Sierras Power Company constructed two plants on 
Bishop Creek, making a total of five plants on the one stream. 
The erection of a double-circuit steel-tower line 239 miles (385 
km.) in length and terminating to the south of San Bernardino, 
Cal., made possible the transmission of this additional power to 
an entirely different section of country from that served by the 



116 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

Nevada- California Power Company, and permitted a more com- 
plete utilization of the power development. 

The design of the tower line is such that operation at 140,000 
volts ''Y" is possible, although a transmission voltage of 87,000 
volts was decided upon as best suited for the period during which 
a market for the power was being developed. At the time the line 
was put into service certain conditions made it desirable to ope- 
rate it for a time at 55,000 volts and all transformers were accord- 
ingly provided with a 55,000-volt tap. By reason of the capacity 
in synchronous units available at the southern end of the line it 
has been possible to operate the line up to the present time at 
55,000 volts with reasonably good voltage regulation. This syn- 
chronous capacity consists of generating units in the reserve 
steam plant at San Bernardino and synchronous condenser and 
frequency-changer sets at the end of some of the more important 
feeders leaving the San Bernardino station, making in all over 
20,000 kva. capacity available for regulating purposes. 

Since the Southern Sierras system has been operated at 55,000 
volts delta and the Nevada-California system at 55,000 volts ^'Y, " 
with grounded neutral, it was not considered advisable to operate 
the two systems as one because of the severe strain that would be 
imposed on the transformers of the ''Y" system by a grounded 
condition of one of the line conductors, owing to the delta-con- 
nected transformers of the plants on the other system. In emer- 
gencies it has been necessary to switch one of the "Y"-connected 
plants to the delta-connected system, but this operating condition 
has been avoided as much as possible for the reason that a heavy 
ground on several occasions put one or more of the ''Y"-con- 
nected transformers out of commission if the latter were operat- 
ing on the delta system at the time. 

It has already been stated that there are five plants on Bishop 
Creek. These plants are known as Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, number- 
ing down-stream. The wheels at No. 2 plant discharge into the 
intake of No. 3, which plant in turn discharges into the intake 
of plant No. 4, and in this way the water is not allowed to seek 
the natural channel or creek bed from the time it enters No. 2 
intake until it is discharged from the tailrace of plant No. 6, 
from which point it is given over to irrigating purposes. 

It will be evident from the foregoing that the greatest economy 
would result from the operation of the five plants in such a man- 



THE SYSTEM 117 

ner that all the water passing through the wheels of one plant 
would in turn pass through each of the other plants. This is a 
condition that it is impossible to maintain with limited forebay 
capacity and varying loads on the different plants. The load 
curve of the Nevada-California Power Company systems differs 
materially from that of the Southern Sierras Power Company, 
and as a result the load demands on the individual plants do not 
occur at the same periods of the day. The load on the latter 
system has grown so rapidly that in spite of the addition of the 
recently completed Rush Creek plant with a capacity of 10,000 
kw. it is necessary to make use of the steam reserve plant to 
handle the peak load. This condition makes it particularly de- 
sirable to have some means of connecting the plants operating on 
the two systems so that any excess capacity of the one group 
could be utilized by the other system, at the same time allowing 

Data on Bishop Creek Plants of Interconnected Systems 

Capacity, Eleva- Static Effective Kw. per 

Kw. tion, Ft. Head, Ft. Head. Ft. Sec.-Ft. 

Plant No. 2 6,000 7,100 938 850 55 

Plant No. 3 6,000 6,280 814 725 45 

Plant No. 4 6,000 5,156 1,180 1,000 62 

Plant No. 5 1,500 4,728 438 350 22 

Plant No. 6 2,000 4,461 280 220 13 

each plant to operate at a capacity determined by the amount of 
w^ater passing through Plant No. 2, the plant furthest up stream. 

On account of the undesirable condition resulting from a direct 
tying together of the two systems it was decided to connect the 
two by means of transformers, this being all the more necessary 
because of the fact that the voltage of the Southern Sierras sj^s- 
tem is to be raised to 87,000 volts within a few months. A three- 
phase, 6000-kva., 87,000-140,000/55,000-volt C'Y") General 
Electric transformer was recently installed for the purpose of 
tying the system together, it being the intention to install a sec- 
ond unit of the same capacity in the near future. 

Location and Construction of Control Station. At a point 
near Plant No. 5 is the northern terminal of the tower line re- 
ferred to above^ and it is to this point that it is proposed to bring 
the lines from all of the hydroelectric plants in that district, mak- 
ing it a control switching station. This center is known as the 
control station, and it was the natural location for the installation 
of tie-in transformer equipment. 



118 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

Plans for this station provide for two distinct parts, one to 
operate at 55,000 volts ''Y" and the other at 87,0000 volts delta 
or 140,000 volts ''Y." The 55,000-volt section has been partly 
completed, and a brief description will be given. The natural 
slope of the ground in that locality made it advisable to level off 
the required area in terraces, and these terraces form a natural 
division for the two parts of the station. On the upper terrace 
are the 55,000-volt bus structure and three-phase transformer. 

Fig. 35 shows a cross section of the station and arrangement of 
equipment. Unit-type construction has been used, as is the prac- 
tice of this company in building all of the more important sta- 
tions. Latticed-steel colum::s form the upright members of the 
structure, while 2-in. (5-cm.) iron pipe serves as horizontal sup- 
ports for the bus insulators and disconnecting switches. Each 
set of four posts forming one of the structural units is tied to- 
gether wdth light fabricated beams, which also carr^^ the pipe 
supports of the disconnecting switches. The bus is made of 1-in. 
(2. 5-cm.) galvanized-iron pipe with -/i-in. (1.8-cm.) iron pipe ris- 
ers from disconnecting switches to bus. All of the pipe and steel 
frame is galvanized. 

Plans for the completed station provide for two oil switches on 
each line, so that the lines can be readily transferred to either 
bus at will. These switches are equipped with remote control ; in 
fact, all of the switches at this station, in both the 55,000-volt 
and the 87,000-volt sections, will be operated from a 110-volt di- 
rect-current bus supplied by storage battery. 

The condition of the market at the present time as regards 
structural steel and electrical construction material has delayed 
the beginning of work on the new 87,000-volt section of the sta- 
tion. For the present the 87,000-volt lines will be connected to 
the 87,000-volt single bus of the older portion of the station. A 
temporary line on wooden poles will serve to connect this bus 
to the 6000-kva. transformer. 

Saving Resulting from Interconnection. The installation of 
this transformer and the erection of the 55,000-volt section of 
the station were pushed as rapidly as possible in order to antici- 
pate the seasonal increase of load in August and the months fol- 
lowing on the system of the Southern Sierras Power Company. 
This accounts for the incomplete condition of that part of the 
station just installed, but does not decrease in any way the gain 



THE SYSTEM 119 

iu available power that the installation has made possible. The 
water required by the Southern Sierras company is thus used by 
the Nevada- California company to generate additional energy 
above its own load requirements, this excess energy being deliv- 
ered to the former company through the 6000-kva. transformer 
installed for the purpose. The direct result of this is a saving 
in fuel oil that would otherwise have to be used in order to 
make up the power deficit on the Southern Sierras Power Com- 
pany system. An additional advantage resulting from the inter- 

Matebial Requujed for Six-Circuit Structure 

Seven structural units. 

Seventy-two GO,000-volt disconnecting switches. 

Twelve three-pole remote-controlled 60,000-volt outdoor-type oil switches. 

Eighteen dead-end fittings. 

Eighteen l^-in. guy thimbles. 

150 pin-type insulators and top clamps (for bus supports). 
1,400 ft. %-in. galvanized-iron pipe (for bus conductor). 

550 ft, 1-in. galvanized-iron pipe (for bus conductor). 

300 ft. li/4-in. galvanized-iron pipe (disconnecting switch supports). 
1,750 ft. 2-in. galvanized-iron pipe (supports). 

228" clamp tees. 
Thirty clamp crosses. 

156 high-tension cast pins. 

112 U-bolts. 
Sixty pipe caps. 

connection is that both s^^stems have practically acquired 6000 
kva. or reserve capacity against the possible temporary loss of a 
generating unit or plant. 

The mileage of the already extensive interconnected system of 
the southern California companies has also been increased by the 
addition of the Nevada-California system, which heretofore has 
had no physical connection with the group. The importance of 
this additional reserve capacity to all of the companies in the 
interconnected group has already been demonstrated. On the 
occasion of the loss of a large generating unit by one of the com- 
panies, the completion of the installation just described made it 
possible for some 5000 kw. to 6000 kw. to be delivered contin- 
uously to the compan}^ which was in need of assistance, and in 
this manner a serious power shortage was averted. 

The installation of a large transformer in a locality removed 
some distance from the railway presented some difficulties in 
transportation and handling. The core of the 6000-kva. unit 



120 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

weighed something more than 36,000 lb. (16,000 kg.), and in 
order that this piece could be hauled 15 miles (24 km.) over 
roads that are in only fair condition it was necessary to make a 
special rig so that the load could be distributed on two wagons, 
since no wagon in that district was capable of carrying the entire 
load. 

In order to keep the center of gravity as low as possible the core 
was slung between two trussed beams. These beams were made 
up of cedar poles and two sawed timbers that were fortunately 
available. The wagons were trailers that had been used for tan- 
dem haul with tractors, and each had a capacity of 10 tons. 

CHEAP WAY OF INCREASING LINE CAPACITY 

To provide for growth in load the New York & Queens Elec- 
tric Light & Power Company, Long Island City, N. Y., was con- 
fronted, not long ago, writes H. C. Dean, General Superintendent 
New York & Queens Electric Light & Power Company, with the 
problem of increasing the rating of its distribution circuits about 
30 per cent. In some districts it was possible to postpone the 
installation of additional copper in the feeders and obtain the in- 
crease merely by replacing 100-amp. regulators in the substations 
with 150-amp. or 200-amp. regulators. In the case of the Long 
Island City district, however, the current-carrying capacity of 
both feeders and regulators had been reached, and all regulators 
were of the maximum size (200 amp.) which the company con- 
siders it desirable to use. 

Choice of Systems. Three methods of solving the problem 
were open: (1) To install additional two-phase feeders (2300 
volts, four- wire; (2) to install high-tension feeders and relieve 
the 2300-volt feeders of the larger consumers; (3) to change the 
2300-volt, two-phase system to 2300/4000-Y volts, three-phase. 

The chief question at first was whether or not it would be as 
cheap to change from two-phase to three-phase as to leave the 
two-phase system and transfer the larger consumers to lines oper- 
ating at transmission voltage. A number of consumers are so 
supplied at the present time, and the company is looking forward 
to increasing such services to a large extent from now on. With 
the existing geographical layout of the lines and large consum- 
ers, the arguments were two to one in favor of changing the two- 



THE SYSTEM 121 

phase distribution system. However, this was due to local con- 
ditions, and it is possible that for other companies the advantages 
would be materially different, either greater or less. 

Careful estimates showed that the third alternative would 
provide the necessary rating for less than half the expenditure 
required by the other methods, owing chiefly to the high cost of 
copper. It had the additional advantage that any future feeders 
would have 50 per cent greater capacity as three-phase feeders 
than as two-phase feeders, while the per cent line loss and volt- 
age drop would be only half as great. To determine the relative 
advantages of three-phase over two-phase, it was therefore only 
necessary to determine the valuation of the existing distribution 
system (less the poles) and to balance 50 per cent of this cost 
against the cost necessary to change to three-phase. 

In the Long Island City district the power load is about four 
times as large as the lighting load, consequently considerable 
work had to be done in making changes in the transformer banks. 
Although new consumers are provided with three-phase service, it 
was decided to continue two-phase, 230-volt service to existing 



222 VOLTS 



222 VOLTS 
g:, RATIO ^AA^AAAA/^ K/WVvAAA 

f 4O00 VOLTS 




K): I RATIO w> > <- s 

TRANSFORMERS *= < > c> K 



Fig. 36 — Method of Securing Converting from Two to Three-Phase 
WITH Standard Transformer 

consumers. This made it necessary to replace one transformer 
of each power bank with two of half the rating having 10 per cent 
taps. The connections and the voltages obtained are shown in 
the accompanying diagram. There are no theoretical disad- 
vantages in this method, as far as Mr. Dean can see, and it has 
given entire satisfaction for many months. 

Method of Making Change-Over. To facilitate the work on 
the day when each feeder had to be changed from two-phase to 
three-phase (which in every case was Sunday), the replacement 
of one transformer in each power bank with two of half capacity 



122 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



was made in advance, the two smaller transformers being con- 
nected in multiple temporarily. The testing of all underground 
2300-volt services, the replacement of certain cable not safe 
enough for operation at 4000 volts, and the installation of pot- 
heads on all cable ends, constituted the only other preliminary 
work on the feeders themselves. 

In the substation it was necessary to install a spare panel com- 
plete with equipment and three regulators for a three-phase 



TWO PHASE 



THREE PHASE 




-A AM/yv 
IB BUS 



m 



rA AUXILIARY 
■ n BUS _ 



- • OIL CIRCUI T BREAKERS - - - -> 



CURRENT TRANSFORMERS 
FOR AMMETERS AND REIAYS 



^m 



oi5oo| p oop 



POTENTIAt REGULATORS 



CURRENT TRANSFORMERS 
FOR LINE DROP COMPENSATOR ^ : 

POTENTIAL TRANS FOR INDICATING AND_. 
"CONTACT- MAKING VOLTMETERS 



<:<:<: 



273 




-• PLUG SWITCHES 
<-- TRANSFER BUS — 
PLUe SWITCHES 

Fig. 37 — Method of Arranging for Change-Over from T\vo-Phase to 

Three-Phase 

feeder and to provide for maintaining one of the 2300-volt buses 
at three phase. This spare panel and equipment was used for the 
first feeder changed over to three-phase, which thus released a 
two-phase panel and the corresponding equipment. The panel in 
turn was built over to provide for the second three-phase feeder, 
etc. 

On the day of actual change over of a feeder it was only neces- 
sary to change the connections of certain transformers and to 
transfer the feeder connections from the two-phase bus to the 
three-phase bus. Any power consumer who had to have service 
Sunday morning was permitted to use it until noon, by which 
time the fuse plugs of all power transformers were disconnected. 
The feeder was then switched from the two-phase bus to the 



THE SYSTEM 123 

three-phase bus and the power consumers were given service in 
the order of their needs. The change did not require rearrange- 
ment of the overhead circuits. 

Economic Advantages. The change from two-phase to 
three-phase distribution in Long Island City district has resulted 
in a very decided economy, since it has made unnecessary the in- 
stallation of additional two-phase feeders, the expense of which 
W'Ould have been five times the cost of making the feeder changes 
to obtain three phase. Furthermore, it has decreased the line 
losses by approximately 200 kw., which alone would pay interest 
charges on the cost of making the change. In addition, it has 
improved the voltage regulation 100 per cent, which means that 
better service is given and that loads at great distances from the 
substation can be more economically handled than heretofore, 
thereby delaying the day when additional substations may be re- 
quired. 

RAISING THE VOLTAGE TO INCREASE LINE 

RATING 

As a matter of economy and to conserve the use of material the 
Louisville Gas & Electric Company has reconstructed the distri- 
bution lines throughout the city, changing the voltage from 2300 
to 4000 volts by connecting the transformers in "Y." This ar- 
rangement greatly increases the line rating with very small in- 
vestment. A similar plan is being worked out for the heavy 
pow'Cr lines, the voltage of which will be raised from 6600 to 
13,200. The latter change will release considerable transformer 
equipment since the largest turbine in the generating plant is 
wound for 13,200 volts. 

ECONOMY PROBLEMS IN NORTHWEST 

In order to care for an increase of power load at minimum ex- 
pense the Puget Sound Traction, Light & Power Company, 
Seattle, Wash., is taking advantage of the diversity of load be- 
tween power customers on its 2200-volt lines. Several customers, 
formerly served by separate transformer banks, are now supplied 
from one set of transformers with a combined rating of 200 to 300 
kw. Larger transformers with the same combined rating for- 



124 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

merly required now serve an increased load. In the case of 
some large customers, service is given directly from the 13,800- 
volt feeders. 

Rather extensive changes in the transmission system have re- 
sulted from the removal of lines which were not absolutely 
necessary, the equipment being used for new lines needed to serve 
industries essential to the war program. On the whole, about 20 
miles (32 km.) of 55,000-volt line have been taken down and 
about 15 miles (21 km.) of new line have been erected with only 
a small amount of new material. At the same time the rating of 
the lines has been greatly increased. 

It should be noted, also, that this company has found outdoor 
substations built upon four wooden poles the least expensive. 

ECONOMICS OF POLE TIMBER 

Thrift and economy have become national watchwords, but we 
seem to have overlooked the ever-present decay of poles at the 
ground line and annually renew millions of poles still sound and 
serviceable above the ground, according to Ernest F. Hartman, 
President, Carbolineum Wood Preserving Company, New York. 

It is estimated that approximately 40,000,000 poles are in use 
to-day. Their value in 800,000 miles of lines has been fixed at 
$400,000,000. As a general average the life of poles has been 
placed at ten years, making annual renewals cost in the neighbor- 
hood of $40,000,000. On the basis of five poles per miles per 
annum for renewals, the drain on our forests will best explain 
the increasing cost of pole timber. While the treatment of poles 
before they are set is always to be recommended, this will not 
check the increasing consumption until a greater percentage are 
treated. At present only 25 per cent receive some kind of pre- 
servative treatment. Much can be accomplished in the way of 
more immediate saving by arresting the decay on poles already in 
service as hereinafter described. Such treatments will be a di- 
rect economy, as they save in the cost of poles as well as in the 
expense of resetting. It may also be taken into consideration 
that costs for line timber for some time after the war will remain 
at a very advanced level. 

About eight years ago Mr. Hartman made his first experiments 
on arresting the decay of standing chestnut poles. An examina- 



THE SYSTEM 125 

tion just made shows that these poles, whose ground-line circum- 
ference was greatly reduced in preparing them for treatment, are 
still perfectly sound. After making a thorough search of all the 
literature on pole preservation for data on arresting decay, the 
desirability of gathering reliable information based on practical 
experience was realized. Accordingly the methods described rej)- 
resent a correlation of the available experience. It is the object 
of this discussion to encourage extension of such forms of pro- 
longing the life of poles to the millions actually in use. 

Treatment of Poles. The decay of timber can be prevented, 
retarded and, what is more important, arrested. If the poles are 
sound at the ground line, no great difficulty will be experienced. 
In this case it is only a matter of opening up the ground around 
the poles to a depth of at least 2 ft. (0.6 m.), allowing the poles 
to dry out and, after cleaning the area to be treated, applying 
three hot brush coats or sprayings of preservative,^ allowing just 
enough time between coats for the preservative to be absorbed by 
the wood. Treatment should extend 2 ft. (0.6 m.) above the 
ground line where the base of the pole is surrounded and shaded 
by vegetation. After filling in again one may rest assured that 
from five to eight years have been added to the life of the pole. 

If decay has set in, then it becomes a question of the extent to 
which the pole has been weakened at the ground line. Varying 
with the extent of the decay one of the following forms of pro- 
cedure will be found applicable : 

When only the sapwood shows decay, open up the ground 
around poles to a depth of from 2 ft. to 3 ft. (0.6 m. to 0.9 m.), 
shave away all the decay and allow the poles to dry out. Scrape 
surface checks clean with a chisel or other sharp instrument. 
Brush the shaved surface with a flexible wire brush, after which 
apply three heavy brush coats or a spraying of heated preserva- 
tive to the part at least 2 ft. (0.6 m.) above and 2 ft. below the 
ground line, allowing sufficient time between coats for the ab- 
sorption of the preservative. 

If the decay has gone beyond the sapwood and safety limits 
are not affected, it is recommended that the shaving away of the 
decay be followed with a heat treatment. Go over the shaved or 
scraped area with a plumber's torch and thus make certain that 

1 Where specific directions are oriven for the application of preservative 
these apply to the use of "Protexol" (formerly "Avenarius Carbolineum") . 



126 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

all wood-destroying organisms have been killed. A wire brush 
should be used to remove any charred wood. Then proceed with 
the application of preservative as before directed. Fill in with 
small stone (this will add a year or two to the life of the poles) or 
fresh ground, not sand. The old ground has in it the germs of 
decay and should not be used if the full benefits of the treatment 
are desired. Where poles show considerable checks at the ground 
line spray applications are preferable to the brush. An added 
life of five years can easily be secured. 

JOINT USAGE OF POLES 

Two or more lines of poles erected on the same side of the 
street or highway are not only unsightly but represent an eco- 
nomic loss and a waste of timber. Where the wires on such con- 
flicting lines are carried at or near the same level a serious elec- 
trical hazard to persons or property is liable to be created owing 
to the proximity of the wires of different classes and the liability 
of contact between them or the possibility of employees working 
on one class of wires coming in contact with another. 

The most practical way of eliminating the losses and hazards 
referred to in connection with lines located on the same side of 
the street appears to be a properly constructed joint-use line hav- 
ing a well-defined space for the wires and fixtures of each occu- 
pant, writes T. N. Bradshaw, chairman of committee which 
drafted Connecticut Rules on Joint Usage. These spaces should 
be separated from one another by an ample vertical clearance 
space. They should also be provided with a suitable climbing 
space so that employees of the various companies using the poles 
can ascend and descend them without coming in contact with the 
wires through which they may have to pass. 

A wide experience covering a number of years with lines con- 
structed as outlined above seems to indicate that' the clearance 
space should be not less than 40 in. (102 cm.) vertically between 
signal wires and attachments and electric light or trolley-feed 
wires and attachments. Experience also shows that a climbing 
space of not less than 30 in. (76 cm.) wide on either the back or 
field side of the pole is necessary in order to provide for climbing 
and for the raising or lowering of transformers. It is, of course, 
preferable to provide a greater vertical separation than 40 in. 



THE SYSTEM 



127 






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128 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

between signal wires and wires carrying high voltages, and many 
companies endeavor to have this space not less than 6 ft. (183 
cm.) particularly with new lines, using the minimum clearance 
of 40 in. only on old lines that are made joint after the line has 
been in service for some length of time. 

The street side of the poles should always be reserved for the 
vertical runs of the electric light or power wires, and the field 
side for the vertical runs of signal wires. Owing to the fact that 
there is no known protective device that can be placed on a signal 
circuit that will afford adequate protection against the potentials 
carried on high-tension circuits, it is not considered advisable to 
place telephone, fire-alarm or other signal circuits on the same 
poles with such circuits. High-tension lines should wherever 
practicable be constructed on rights-of-way remote from those 
occupied by the signal lines. (By high-tension circuits are 
meant the following: Constant-potential, alternating-current, 
neither side grounded, exceeding 5000 volts; constant-potential, 
alternating-current, one side or neutral grounded, exceeding 
2900 volts to ground; constant-current, series-metallic, line cur- 
rent exceeding 7.5 amp., and constant-potential direct-current 
circuits including feeders and trolley-contact wires, one side 
grounded, exceeding 750 volts to ground.) 

Pole lines located on the opposite sides of a street or highway 
are not considered as conflicting, but the same precautions should 
be observed, when erecting separate lines of poles, regarding the 
relative levels of the wires of different classes. That is, electric 
light or power wires should be carried on a taller pole line and the 
signal wires carried on a shorter pole line. This will enable elec- 
tric light service wires crossing the streets to be carried over the 
telephone wires, and telephone wires from the opposite side of 
the street to be carried under the electric light wires. This prac- 
tice prevents the interlacing of the service wires, which is liable 
to be a very serious problem in streets which are congested to any 
considerable degree. 

In order to bring about the conditions outlined in the fore- 
going it is necessary to have some form of inter-company agree- 
ment covering not only specifications and methods of construc- 
tion and the reservation of space requirements but also a fair 
division of the construction and maintenance costs. In Connecti- 
cut the matter is helped along by fair-minded legislation, and 
the Public Utilities Commission of Connecticut has promulgated 



THE SYSTEM 129 

in its Order ^'D" docket/ No. 1447, a set of rules and specifica- 
tions under which most of the wire-using companies of the state 
have been operating for some time with very satisfactory results. 

Since most of the lines in Connecticut have been placed on a 
joint-use basis and the construction standardized there has been 
a marked decrease in the number of fatal accidents to the em- 
plo3'ees. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that employees 
working on signal circuits no longer have to climb through elec- 
tric light wires in order to get at their own work, and the electric 
light wires are generally placed so far above the signal wires 
that electric light employees are not apt to come into contact with 
grounded lines of another class in working on high-voltage wires. 

There is another feature which appears to make joint use pref- 
erable, particularly in cities and towns where there is consider- 
able local distribution ; that is, that the city or town is more com- 
pletely covered by the pole lines of the two companies, and many 
companies have reasoned that it is better to own one-half of all 
the poles in a locality rather than to own all of one-half the poles. 

In order to insure the success of any joint-line arrangement, 
particularly where electric light and signal lines are to occupy 
the same poles, the broadest possible cooperation must be in- 
dulged in between the various occupants for eliminating induc- 
tive interference. Electric light lines should always be kept free 
from grounds that might upset the electrostatic balance to 
ground, also long single-phase taps from three-phase circuits 
should be avoided wherever practicable. The voltage wave de- 
veloped by the generators should be as free as possible from noise- 
producing harmonics, and consideration should be given this fact 
before the generating machinery is purchased from the manu- 
facturer. Deviation from the pure sine wave should not be 
allowed to exceed the limit set by the American Institute of Elec- 
trical Engineers. These precautions are quite necessary in con- 
nection with electric light or power circuits, because it is not 
always possible to transpose telephone lines, for instance, so as 
to eliminate all inductive interference. In many instances it has 
been found necessary to place transpositions in the electric light 
or power circuits to coordinate with those in the telephone cir- 
cuits. 

1 Can be obtained by addressinof secretary of commission, Henry F. Bill- 
ings, whose address is Hartford, Conn. 



130 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

In Connecticut alone there are approximately 1700 miles (2700 
km.) of pole lines used jointly by electric light and telephone or 
other signal lines. Practically all of this joint line mileage is 
standard as regards location of the wires and vertical or lateral 
separation, so that it is fair to say that the joint-use line is, under 
proper regulation, a success, simplifies the distribution problem 
and works toward safety. 

While it is sometimes more expensive to erect a joint line, the 
cost to each occupant is usually less than a separate line or poles 
would be. The maintenance costs are also less because of this 
division of the charges. The lines appear to stand up better 
under the influence of severe storms because of the fact that such 
joint-use networks are usually much better guyed or braced than 
a single line would be. Moreover, such lines receive more atten- 
tion from the engineers in order to make them satisfactory to all 
parties concerned. 

TRANSFORMER INSPECTION AN ECONOMIC MEASURE 

Thorough inspection of all distribution transformers returned 
from the lines should be made before they are again issued for 
service, first to lessen the chance of failure after replacement on 
the lines, and second to minimize the labor required in making the 
installation. Chances of failure are decreased if transformers 
are issued thoroughly clean and dry and with leads and bushings 
intact. Moreover, it is evident that minor repairs and adjust- 
ments can be made better and cheaper in the shop than by the in- 
stallation crew in the field. 

Bushings Need Close Attention. Bushings should always be 
carefully examined, as they are a frequent cause of failure. This 
is particularly true of the higher voltage classes (11 kv. to 22 
kv.) owing to their sizes and greater liability to breakage. A 
break is not always evident from a casual examination, and each 
bushing should be shaken to disclose any looseness. A broken or 
loose bushing, especially a primary bushing, should always be 
repaired before the transformer is again utilized, since it is 
almost certain to break down in wet weather and may, under 
certain conditions, cause a burn-out of the transformer 'windings. 

As most bushings are broken in handling transformers after 
shipping crates have been removed, means should be provided 



THE SYSTEM 131 

for protecting them. This is especially necessary with the comer 
bushings of the flaring petticoat type used in transformers de- 
signed for moderately high distribution voltages since the insula- 
tors project beyond the re-entrant corners in the case. Some 
companies provide wooden angles which are bolted to the hanger 
lugs and encircle the bushings, thus eliminating breakage when 
the transformer swings against an obstruction. 

Although more liable to breakage, double petticoat bushings 
with long leakage surfaces and deep recesses seem to give better 
service than the straight or corrugated types. The recess seldom 
becomes entirely filled with oil and dust, regardless of how much 
the lead may siphon oil. Furthermore, leakage will not occur 
across the clean surface between the two parts of the shell. On 
the other hand, the cylindrical types, whether plain or corru- 
gated, usually become coated with dust whenever there is any oil 
leakage, and breakdown often results. 

In renewing bushings in any line of transformers advantage 
should be taken of the most recent designs that may be accom- 
modated in the outlet holes. Thus it will be found that the early 
white cylindrical types may in some instances be replaced with 
corrugated brown glazed bushings, which, having a longer leak- 
age surface, are less liable to break down. 

It is important that bushings which are suitable for the service 
be chosen. Substitutions should not be made unless the new type 
is superior to the old. A full supply of spare bushings should be 
carried in stock so that makeshifts will be unnecessary. A blue- 
print schedule showing the catalog numbers of primary and sec- 
ondary bushings required for each tank number should be pre- 
pared with the assistance of the manufacturers for each line of 
transformers handled. This will be found of service both in ex- 
pediting purchases and in selecting repair parts from store-room 
stock. 

When installing new bushings a grade of sealing compound 
such as is specially recommended by the manufacturers for this 
purpose should be used. All of the old compound should be re- 
moved before the new bushing is placed. If the bushing is of 
the type set in with babbitt (those inserted from the outside are 
usually set in with babbitt, paper lock washers or some similar 
device), this metal also should be completely removed. In chip- 
ping out old bushings and compound provision must be made 



132 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

for catching the scraps to prevent their falling into the coils or 
bottom of the case. Bushings of the curved styles are best made 
up complete with leads before insertion in the transformers. 
The more simple styles, which are easily filled with compound, 
may be filled in place. 

Heating Compound to Right Temperature. Care must be 
taken to heat the compound to the proper temperature before 
pouring; otherwise cracks will result. The entire corner of the 
case in which the bushing is placed should be heated so that the 
compound will not be chilled on striking the metal. To chill the 
compound will often result in a leak between it and the case. 
Much of the oil leakage which occurs around leads and bushings 
is not caused entirely by siphon action along or through the lead, 
but may be due to cracks between the bushing and the sealing 
cement or between the latter and the case. This leakage will 
not occur unless oil is slopped onto the compound, but it is prac- 
tically impossible to avoid this in handling a filled transformer. 
To avoid leaks of this character, not only should hot compound 
be used, but the surface of the compound above the bushings 
should always slope in toward the center of the case. This can 
be effected by tilting the transformer while the compound is being 
poured as well as while it is hardening. "Where the compound 
must be built up a temporary paper dam may be installed, and 
after the cement has set it can be removed. This scheme also 
makes it possible to raise the level of the cement above the top of 
the bushing so that the bushing and recess may be filled in one 
operation. 

Bushings should be kept clean. It is a good plan to incor- 
porate in all directions covering the installation of transformers a 
note to wipe bushings carefully after the transformer is in place. 
Most of the oil and dust which, if left on a bushing, are so likely 
to cause breakdown are accumulated during transportation from 
the store room to the job. If the bushings are cleaned after the 
transformer is hung, this cause of trouble is largely avoided. 
When transformer tanks are being painted care must be taken 
not to get paint on the bushings, as the rough paint surface will 
tend to gather dust. Bushings of the larger types should be 
wrapped with cloth or paper while cases are being painted. 

How Trouble with Leads May Be Prevented. Next to bush- 
ings, leads require most frequent attention. They are often 



THE SYSTEM 133 

broken in handling or are cut short when transformers are re- 
moved. In addition, they deteriorate because of the siphoning of 
oil. Secondary leads of the types of transformers under discus- 
sion are invariably rubber-covered. Primary leads are usually 
rubber-covered, although some manufacturers have recently used 
varnished cambric insulation for voltages of 11 kv. and up. 
Each material has its advantages. Rubber withstands weather 
and moisture well, but it is deteriorated rapidly by oil. This 
weakness is its most serious defect as oil is often siphoned over 
the leads. Varnished cambric, on the other hand, while bene- 
fited by oil, does not withstand weather well when protected only 
by a braid covering. It is easily dried out by hot weather and 
is liable to absorb moisture in wet weather. These remarks ap- 
ply, of course, only to the leads outside of the case ; those inside 
are always insulated with varnished cambric. 

In arranging for shop repairs to transformer leads it is first 
necessary to prepare a schedule of cables to be used in making 
renewals, in order to secure uniformity in purchases and repairs. 
This is preferable to attempting to replace the old lead with one 
precisely similar in size, insulation and stranding to that installed 
at the factory, since in the past manufacturers have differed con- 
siderably as to these details in transformers having identical rat- 
ings. To follow these deviations would require an unnecessarily 
elaborate stock of cable. A schedule which has proved satisfac- 
tory in practice is given herewith for two classes of transformers, 
for an 11,000-volt and a 2300-volt line. The cables selected, es- 
pecially those used for primary leads, have not been chosen ex- 
clusively on a basis of their usefulness as transformer leads, but 
also with a view to their use in the wiring of substations and 
similar work, in order to avoid the carrying of overlapping 
stocks. All cables are specified as single-braid, rubber-covered. 
However, if any are to be used extensively in outdoor work, as 
for instance in wiring between cut-outs and transformers, they 
may be specified as single-braid and tape. The rubber insula- 
tion is 30 per cent Para for the 11-kv. leads and N. E. C. for 
the others. 

It is evident that cable much smaller than No. 6 might be used 
for the smaller sizes of 11-kv. transformers. However, the ex- 
pensive part of cable is the insulation, therefore little saving per 
foot can be effected by ordering a smaller size. Since this size is 



134 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



used extensively in transformer installation wiring, short pieces 
are usually available for leads which might otherwise be wasted. 
The greatest difficulty in installing leads is to prevent the si- 
phoning of the oil. If this happens, the oil will rapidly deterio- 
rate the rubber of the leads and in addition will gather dirt on 
leads and bushings and thus increase the danger of breakdown. 



VARNISHED CAMBRIC 
INSlJIJiTION 



F/UIN5 
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Fill Infer sf ices be-fween 

Strands with Solder 

fo this Point 




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while filling/ 

■ RUBBER INSULATION 
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Figs. 39 and 40 — Bushing Construction that Prevents Siphoning; 
Three-Part Transformer Test Report 

Where the primary terminal blocks are under oil, as is the case in 
most recent types of transformers, solid conductors may be in- 
serted between terminal block and busing to prevent the siphon- 
ing which would be caused if stranded leads were used. Where 
stranded conductors are used the splice between the inside por- 
tion of the lead (which is insulated with varnished cambric) and 
the outside rubber-insulated part, as well as all interstises be- 
tween strands for a short distance on each side of the splice, 
should be thoroughly filled with solder. 

The splice in primary leads should be placed so as to be com- 
pletely surrounded by sealing compound, and the short, bare and 
solder-filled portions on each side of the splice should likewise 
be covered (Fig. 39). A wrapped splice is generally used. Sec- 



THE SYSTEM 135 

oudary splices and some of the simpler primary splices are placed 
above the compound. The varnished-cambric insulation of the 
secondary should be started above the oil level. After filling a 
bushing with compound, tape should be wrapped around the out- 
going- lead at the point where it leaves the bushing to prevent the 
compound from running out before it has set. After the cement 
has hardened this tape should be removed ; otherwise all the oil 
which may leak between lead and compound will gather at this 
point and rapidly eat away the insulation. 

Instructions should be issued to line crews cautioning them 
against handling transformers by the leads. Transformers are 
frequently dragged along the ground or truck bed by the leads 
or are kept from swinging into the pole when being raised by 
lines attached to the leads. This practice results in many broken 
leads and bushings. 

When new leads are installed they should be made long. In 
some types of pole installations one additional foot of primary 
lead will permit direct insertion of the lead into the primary cut- 
out without a splice. 

Some line foremen make use of the connectors provided on the 
leads by manufacturers, and use care in handling them; others 
appear to consider them superfluous and often cut them off. 
Instructions should be given to use these whenever present, as 
they are considerable labor savers, especially in the larger sizes, 
and will give no trouble if properly installed. Any connectors 
which are not used should be left taped to one of the leads so that 
they will be available if necessary in some future installation. 
In removing transformers foremen should be cautioned to cut 
the feeds between the connectors and the line and not the leads 
between the connectors and the transformers. The connectors 
may then be saved in the shop. Many leads are cut so short 
through carelessness that they must be replaced before the trans- 
former can be reissued for service. 

Painting of Cases and Care of Oil. Cases should be repainted 
whenever transformers are brought in from the lines, unless they 
have been installed only a short time. Sheet-steel cases espe- 
cially will deteriorate rapidly unless protected by paint and if 
rusted should be given two coats. Before paint is applied it is 
necessary to clean the case thoroughly with distillate and a steel- 
wire brush to remove all dirt and oil. A good quality of turpen- 



136 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

tine asphaltum paint will be found serviceable for this work. If 
a system of company numbers is in use, numbers should be re- 
stenciled on transformer cases as soon as they are slightly oblit- 
erated. A white-lead and linseed-oil paint should be used for 
this purpose. Stencils 2^/^ in. (6.35 cm.) high may be readily 
deciphered from the ground, still they are small enough so that 
four or five figures may be placed on the smaller-size cases. 

If the transformer has been installed for several years, it is 
preferable to draw off the oil for testing and treatment as soon 
as it arrives on the testing platform. On the other hand, if the 
transformer has been on the lines only a short time and the oil 
seems clear and without a burned odor, it need not be removed. 
In the case of the larger sizes of distribution transformers, a 
sample should be drawn from the bottom of the case with a 
' ' sneak ' ' for a moisture test. All transformer oil should be care- 
fully tested, handled and stored in accordance with the recom- 
mendations ^ of the apparatus committee of the National Electric 
Light Association. Linemen cannot be cautioned too often 
against handling oil in the open in damp or foggy weather. 
Companies utilizing distribution transformers of two voltages, 
as, for instance, 13,200-volt and 2300-volt equipment, will do well 
to reserve new oil for the higher-voltage equipment and use the 
second-hand treated and filtered oil in the lower-voltage ap- 
paratus. 

When possible, transformers should be filled with oil before 
they leave the storeyard; this, however, is not always possible. 
If the old oil is not removed when transformers are returned 
from the lines, an inspection should be made to see that the oil is 
up to the proper level. Schedules of transformers showing tank 
symbols and quantity of oil required for each line of transform- 
ers in service should be readily available. It should be noted 
that transformers of the same make and type but of different 
form may require quite different quantities of oil. 

Cleaning of Transformers and Detection of Flaws. The 
cleaning of the coils of transformers removed from the lines 
requires careful consideration, especially if they have been in- 
stalled a considerable time and sludge has been precipitated by 
the oil. The elimination of oil deposits from the circulating 

1 Proceedings N. E. L. A., 1917, Technical and Hydroelectric Section, page 
281. Also available in booklet form. 



THE SYSTEM 137 

ducts is particularly essential since their effects are cumulative. 
By impeding- the oil circulation they cause the transformer to 
overheat with a given load, which in turn increases the sediment. 
An air-transil-oil spray is effective in flushing the ducts. When 
the oil is drained off it will also clear any moisture which may 
be present at the bottom of the case. 

]\Iany transformers cannot be properly cleaned without remov- 
ing the coils from the case ; this is especially true where the sedi- 
ment has thickened. Some of the older types of transformers 
which have no oil ducts between coils should always be removed 
and cleaned by scraping, as a thick coating is generally to be 
found on the coils caused by the lack of circulation. Care must 
be used in scraping to avoid damaging the insulation. An air- 
distillate spray will be found effective for this kind of cleaning, 
but should not be used unless the transformer is dried out before 
being placed in service. A distillate spray should not be used 
wdthin the test room, owing to the fire risk. A cast-iron grating 
with removable containers should be provided on the transformer 
platform for draining coils and cases ; otherwise oil will be scat- 
tered about the place. By this means considerable oil or distil- 
late can be saved, as the oil can be filtered for re-use. 

Cases should be examined for leaks. A crack in a cover may 
permit the entrance of sufficient moisture to cause breakdown. 
Cast-iron cases when cracked may be welded with an oxy-acety- 
lene torch ; sheet-steel cases may be repaired by brazing or weld- 
ing. Drain plugs should also be examined and set in with red 
lead if leaky. Felt strips should be carried in stock so that when 
those in service are lost or worn they may be replaced. It is 
important that these be kept effective. 

Hanger irons and lugs should be examined for cracks and flaws. 
When transformers are returned from the lines it is advisable 
to arrange some system by which the hangers are kept with them 
or properly marked so that they cannot be mixed with others. If 
an improper hanger iron is shipped unnoticed with the trans- 
former, it may cause an expensive delay to the line crew. 

If a transformer has taps, connecting lugs, nuts and bars 
should be checked for missing parts. If they are missing, they 
will usually be found in the bottom of the case, where they were 
dropped while taps were being changed in the field. Spare con- 
necting links should be taped to leads. 



138 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



It should be ascertained that coils and core are firmly held in 
place by the bolts and wedges. To send a transformer out loose 
in the case will often result in damage to coils and consequent 
breakdown. 

Testing for Burn-Outs. The most difficult of all repairs are 
those to coils. When a transformer comes in which is suspected 

Schedule of Cables to Use in Renewing Transformer Leads 

primary leads 





Transformer 


Size 


Insula- 


No. 


Class 


Size 


of 


tion 


of 




(Kva.) 


Lead 


(i/kthsof 
In.) 


Strands 


11, 000- volt 


1 to 100 


6 


16 


7 


2.300-volt 


1 to5 


12 


8 


7 




71/0 and 10 


10 


8 


7 




15 and 20 


8 


8 


7 




25 and 30 


6 


8 


7 




371/2 and 50 


4 


8 


7 




75 


2 


S 


19 




100 


1-0 


8 


19 




secondary 


LEADS 






460-230-1 15-volt 


lto3 


8 


3 


7 




5 


6 


4 


7 




71/2 and 10 


4 


4 


7 




15 


2 


4 


19 




20 and 25 


1-0 


5 


19 




30 


2-0 


5 


37 




371/^ and 50 


4-0 


5 


37 




75 


400,000 cm. 


6 


37 




100 


500,000 cm. 


6 


61 




secondary 


leads 






2300-460-volt 


1 to20 


6 


8 


7 




25 and 30 


4 


8 


7 




371/2 


2 


8 


19 




50 


1-0 


8 


19 




75 


2-0 


8 


37 




100 


4-0 


8 


37 



of being burned out, unless it is evident from a superficial exam- 
ination that the coils are completely mined, tests should be ap- 
plied with caution. A breakdown insulation test should never be 
applied until a megger is used. A premature insulation test may 
injure a transformer beyond repair. If the megger shows the 
insulation to be in bad condition, the transformer should be dried 
out by one of the usual methods and the test repeated. Such a 
dry-out will often correct the difficulty. Often a careful exam- 
ination of the coils will reveal only a few damaged turns; these 



THE SYSTEM 139 

may be replaced or reiiisulated if carefully handled. If neces- 
sary, all coils should be disconnected so that each may be *'meg- 
gered" to the core separately. The megger test is of course a 
preliminary step onl}' for the purpose of trouble location. No 
transformer should be reinstalled which cannot withstand an 
appropriate insulation test. Ratio, core loss and exciting-current 
determination should also be made on each transformer before it 
is considered ready. 

When it has finally been proved that a transformer is burned 
out it becomes necessary to decide upon its disposal. Several 
courses are open : It may be scrapped ; it may be returned to the 
manufacturer on some exchange proposition ; new coils may be 
wound in the local shop, or coils may be ordered from the manu- 
facturer. In any case the decision will largely depend on the 
voltage class of the transformer, its age and type. Antiquated 
types having operating characteristics inferior to those of modern 
transformers should seldom be rewound. Transformers of the 
2300-volt class can usually be returned to manufacturers for 
credit on a basis that is more enonomical than rewinding. On 
the other hand, it pays to order new factory-made coils for the 
higher-voltage classes. If a factory repair shop is available 
within reasonable distance, it may be cheaper to have the factory 
make complete repairs. When the coils are installed in a local 
shop, care must be taken to shellac and dry them thoroughly. 
Some form of drying oven should be available, and the trans- 
former should be placed therein at a temperature of about 85 
deg. C. (185 deg. Fahr.) for at least twenty-four hours. 

Transformers should be stored in such a manner that they will 
be easily accessible. If platforms rather than racks are used, 
ample aisles should be provided between rows to avoid breakage 
of bushings. Besides, transformers of similar ratings should be 
grouped together. Burned-out transformers awaiting dispo- 
sition should not be mixed with the others, and to eliminate any 
chance of their being taken out by a repair crew in an emergency 
they should be given a dash of colored paint or otherwise con- 
spicuously marked. 

Some recording system should be adopted in order that trans- 
formers returned from the lines shall be assured of proper atten- 
tion and that no transformer shall be taken out until it is 
inspected and repaired if necessary. The three-part linen tag 



140 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

(Fig. 40) has been successfully used by one company for this 
purpose. Upon arrival the yard foreman issues a tag for each 
transformer. The lowest section is torn off and sent to the shop 
as a notification of work to be done; the remainder is attached 
to the transformer. When inspection, repairs and test are com- 
pleted the middle section is torn off and sent to the record depart- 
ment as a notification of work done, and also that the transformer 
may be again placed on the active list. The upper portion of the 
tag remains attached to the transformer until it is reinstalled. 
The condition of each tag shows at all times the status of the 
transformer to which it is attached, and regardless of the method 
pursued in ordering out transformers for use, no transformer 
will be taken which has not received attention. 

USE OF METERING EQUIPMENT SAVES TRANS- 
FORMER PURCHASE 

Striving toward conservation of essential materials in accord 
with the spirit of the times, the Plymouth (Ind.) Electric Light 
& Power Company recently worked out a scheme for utilizing 
existing transformers more efficiently and thus avoided purchas- 
ing additional units. In general the plan consisted simply of 
making load measurements on certain transformers to ascertain 
what units could be relocated to better advantage as regards their 
capacities. The apparatus used in making the measurements 
consisted of two sets of current transformers and one graphic 
meter. One set of transformers were rated at 160/5 amp., 2500 
volts each, and the other at 20/5 amp., 2500 volts each. The 
meter was a Westinghouse type U, with an eight-day clock and 
a 5-amp. scale. This equipment was all placed in a single box in 
such fashion that several desirable circuit changes could be made 
on a plug board constructed as a part of the outfit. These circuit 
combinations made it possible to use the metering outfit and get 
proper scale deflections on the meter on transformers between 
10 kw. and 60 kw. A two to one ratio instrument transformer 
was used on smaller units. 

When a test was made the metering outfit was hung on a pole 
at the transformer bank. In residential districts the duration of 
these tests was usually from Monday until Thursday and in the 
business districts was usually from Friday until Monday. On 



THE SYSTEM 141 

motor installations records over a two-week period w^ere some- 
times taken. 

As the result of forty such tests the locations of ten transform- 
ers were changed. In general it was found that units in residen- 
tial districts could serve wider territory and thus release trans- 
formers to be removed to the business district, w^here most of the 
existing equipment was overloaded. Making the changes which 
were indicated to be possible by the tests has relieved the com- 
pany for the time being of the necessity of buying transformers 
and has bettered the voltage regulation of the system as a whole. 

DUCT SPLICING SAVES SHORT LENGTHS OF CABLE 

The financial loss due to inability to utilize short lengths of 
cable is a serious one to all companies operating underground 
systems of distribution. These lengths are constantly accumu- 
lating owing to withdrawal of old cable necessitated by changes 
and replacements of existing circuits. Large companies doing a 
great deal of underground work keep these lengths and event- 
ually can utilize them by matching in with new construction, but 
this involves keeping on hand a large quantity of slow-moving 
stock, tying up investment and often using valuable space for 
storage. Smaller companies usually are obliged to scrap their 
short pieces of cable, often at only a fraction of the original cost. 

It has long been the practice to splice the shorter lengths of 
small cables, such as arc-light and main cables, to make up lengths 
that could be used, but a joint such as is usually made in large 
high-tension and low-tension feeders would be too big to draw 
into the standard-sized duct. It has doubtless occurred to many 
underground superintendents, however, that if a small enough 
splice could be made in such feeders much of this slow-moving 
or waste cable could be utilized. This possibility is of especial 
interest at the present time owing to the high cost of metals, 
difficulty in obtaining cable deliveries and desirability of releas- 
ing as far as possible the full capacity of the cable factories for 
the manufacture of materials directly useful in the prosecution 
of the war. In view of these facts the long experience of one of 
the large lighting companies in the development and use of duct 
splicing may be of interest. 

How Splice Diameter Is Minimized. The underground de- 



142 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

partment of the New York Edison Company, J. B. Noe and A. 
Rabe write, made such a splice in November, 1904, joining two 
sections of three-conductor, 250,000-circ. mil., 6600-volt cable. 
The diameter of the splice was kept down by staggering the joints 
in the three conductors, making a joint 24 in. (71 cm.) long, over 
which was placed a split lead sleeve slightly larger than the orig- 
inal cable, soldered at the seam and wiped to the cable sheath at 
the ends. This joint was made by drawing in the first section, 
making the splice in the manhole, and then resuming the pulling, 
drawing the splice and second section on into the duct. This 
original duct splice remained in service without failure for sev- 
eral years and when finally withdrawn for some cable changes 
was opened and found perfect. 

Prior to 1911 no great difficulty was experienced by that com- 
pany in utilizing short lengths of feeder cable, the large amount 
of construction work continually in progress providing a compar- 
atively ready outlet for such material. In this year, however, 
the size of the standard high-tension feeder was increased from 
250,000-circ. mil. round conductor to 350,000-circ. mil. sector, all 
new cable purchased being of the latter size. As a result large 
quantities of the smaller-size cable began to accumulate in the 
stockyard, it being impossible to match in the short lengths of old 
cable as parts of new feeders as had been the previous practice. 

In the same year the proposed addition to the system of about 
twenty-five high-tension service connections offered a tempting 
opportunity for the use of this cable, provided that it could be 
spliced up to make such lengths as could be used in existing 
subway. Duct splices similar to the one made in 1904 were suc- 
cessfully utilized, and all these connections, involving the use of 
more than six miles (9.7 km.) of feeder, were made, using this 
old cable exclusively. Not one failure has ever occurred in any 
of these splices or on any of the more than 600 duct splices 
made on various cables. 

During the next few years very extensive changes in the under- 
ground cable system due to starting up a new generating station 
provided an ample outlet for released cable, but in 1915, the ac- 
cumulation of short lengths again becoming critical, serious atten- 
tion was turned to the duct splice. Before adopting it as a 
permanent policy for all types of cables, tests were conducted to 
determine : 



THE SYSTEM 143 

First — Mechanical strength, both of the spliced sleeve and the 
spliced conductor, as compared with the strain put on them in 
installing and withdrawing the cable under the severest duct 
conditions. 

Second^ — Dielectric strength of the duct splice after it had been 
subjected to the strain of installation. 

Third — Heating in the duct splice due to heavy loads. 

All of these tests showed the duct splice as made up to be 
superior to the body of the cable. 

A decided improvement was made at this time by "burning" 
on the lead sleeve instead of using solder. This made the joint 
as flexible as the rest of the cable, and as the spliced lengths could 
be put upon reels without fear of cracking, it became the prac- 
tice to make the joints in the cable yard instead of in the man- 
hole, effecting a very great saving in cost. At odd times and on 
rainy days the short pieces were spliced up to make sections of 
such lengths as could be easily matched. 

During 1916 a duct splice was developed for two-conductor, 
1,000,000-circ. mil. low-tension concentric cable with three pres- 
sure wires. Large quantities of slow-moving stock of this type 
of cable were thus made available for immediate use. 

Among the various types of cable on which the duct splice has 
been used, two deserving of special mention are triplex 350,000- 
circ. mil. 25,000-volt armored submarine cable and single-con- 
ductor 2,500,000-circ. mil. low-tension cable with pressure wires. 
Of the first type three 910-ft. (277-m,) reserve lengths were made 
available for immediate installation as four 610-ft. (186-m.) 
lengths by cutting and splicing. Of the latter type 2100 ft. 
(640 m.) left dead in the subwaj^s by the starting of a new sub- 
station were salvaged and are now installed as direct feeders to 
a new large customer. 

Some idea of the amount of cable transformed from scrap or 
very slow-moving stock to actual service may be gained from the 
fact that the company previously referred to has to date a total 
of 211,569 ft. (approximately 64,460 m.) of duct-spliced cable 
of various types, representing a value of approximately $380,000. 
Practically all of this material is now installed. 

Splicing Done in Cable House. The work of making these 
special splices was at first done in the cable yard, temporary 
tarpaulin shelters being erected for protecting the exposed ends 



144 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

of the cables from rain, snow or whatever necessary. As the 
work assumed larger proportions it was decided to erect a build- 
ing with special facilities for handling the reels expeditiously 
and with a mimimum of labor. A narrow-gage track enters this 
building from the point where the reels are delivered by truck 
and runs the entire length of one side. The reels are placed on 
small cars running along the track, from which they can be deliv- 
ered to any of the six splicing stations. At each of these stations 
are two specially designed cable racks to hold the reels, the 
splicing being made between the racks. An electric motor with 
suitable speed control has been mounted on a car, and by means 
of a sprocket and chain connection can be used to reel or unreel 
cable of any of the racks. Only one man is required for this 
work instead of the usual gang of four or more. A convenient 
system of piping makes easy the connection of the oxy-acetylene 
outfits used for the lead burning at each of the splicing stations, 
thus avoiding a multiplicity of tanks. 

Very little expense for material was incurred in the equipment 
of the splicing house. Much of it was rescued from the scrap 
heap, and some, such as the rails of the narrow-gage railway, was 
purchased from contractors at practically its scrap value. 

While it would not be necessary for all companies using cable 
to prepare such an elaborate plant for duct splicing as the one 
described, it is obvious that all companies generally can adopt 
with great advantage the practice of making such duct splices to 
save considerable cable material that would otherwise be scrapped 
or kept in slow-moving storage. 

CABLES COOLED BY FAN 

Increasing loads on a cable duct line leaving the Dutch Point 
station of the Hartford (Conn.) Electric Light Company re- 
cently caused overheating, and to overcome this a motor-driven 
fan was installed. In this line there are nineteen occupied ducts 
carrying cables operating at 22,000, 11,000, 4800 and 2400 volts, 
and telephone lines of the company in addition. The duct runs 
underground from the plant to a manhole about 250 ft. (76.2 m.) 
distant, and the temperatures of the unoccupied sections were 
obtained by inserting maximum and minimum thermometers in 
a mandrel and pulling them through after sufficient exposure to 
running conditions. Air is circulated through the duct by a 30- 



THE SYSTEM 145 

in. (76.1 cm.) fan-belt driven by a 5-hp. Westinghouse 220-volt 
induction motor mounted on the ceiling of the power-plant base- 
ment. An emergency connection is also provided so that the fan 
can be used to exhaust air or smoke from a transformer room 
below if necessary. By continuous operation of the fan the duct 
temperature was reduced from a maximum of 150 deg. Fahr. to 
80 deg. Fahr. (71.1 to 26.7 deg. C), thus enabling the cable line 
to carry an increased load for a given duct temperature and con- 
serving copper. 

TEACHING NEW MEN CABLE DUCT SPLICING 

In order to be assured that new men are efficient and prepared 
to make good splices, the Duquesne Light Company of Pitts- 
burgh, Pa., has arranged an imitation manhole in the underground 
department laboratory to allow the man to show his ability. 
This arrangement consists of half of a six-side manhole painted 
to appear like red brick and giving the man exactly the same 
amount of space as he would have if w^orking under actual con- 
ditions. The work is watched by the superintendent or foreman 
of the underground department, and a man is not allowed to work 
in a manhole until he is fully qualified to make a neat splice and 
wipe the joint. 

VERTICAL TAPS SIMPLIFY THE TURNING OF 

CORNERS 

Corner work is often complicated and difficult to install with 
adequate clearance between wires in cities having wide curbs 
with rounded corners at street intersections. Single-pole buck- 
arm corners are generally impracticable even when side or alley 
arms are used, since the wdres are brought too close to buildings 
thereby. Therefore a double-pole corner must be installed with 
connecting cross-overs run between poles. Vertical taps are 
sometimes employed rather than cross-overs as they give a neater 
installation. They are, however, more difficult to place, partic- 
ularly where the poles are so high that the taps cannot be made 
from tower wagons. 

A special installation in which considerable saving in first cost 
with added safety and simplicity was secured by means of verti- 



146 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



cal taps and special line insulators is illustrated in the accom- 
panjdng figures. In this case two independent 11-kv. circuits 
passed by a street intersection where it was desired to provide a 
branch from each circuit, one to the right, the other to the left. 



A STRAIN 
INSULATORS 




Figs. 41 and 42 — Old and Improved Methods of Connecting Lines Kun- 

NiNG AT Right Angles 

The usual method of installing cross-overs would have required 
the construction shown in Pig. 41. Owing to the relatively high 
voltage of the circuits a 45-deg. buck-arm would have been re- 
quired on the higher pole in order to secure proper clearances. 
However, by installing vertical taps and strain insulators as 
shown in Fig. 42, the construction was greatly simplified, both as 
to dead-ending and guying. Strain insulators were installed in 
pairs to secure an added factor of safety, although single units 
were sufficient for the voltage here employed. The insulators 
and taps are so placed that under normal operating conditions 
with both lines energized there is no potential across the insula- 
tors. The taps were installed by a lineman working from a 
temporary steel cable swung across the span. 



HOW SYSTEM OPERATORS CAN IMPROVE ECONOMY 

In order properly to conserve the energies and resources of a 
modern interconnected transmission system, made up of hydro- 
electric plants, steam plants and substations, the services of well- 
trained, competent load dispatchers or system operators are 
essential. Men of broad operating experience are needed for 
positions of this kind. They must be familiar, states Harry J. 
Burton of the Consumers' Power Company, Jackson, Mich., with 
the operation of steam plants, water plants and substations, and 



THE SYSTEM 147 

with the care and maintenance of high-tension transmission lines. 

System operators are in a particularly favorable position for 
observing the general status of an operating department, and 
with the guidance of their executives should be able to bring 
about successful and economical operation. 

To operate to the best possible advantage the authority of the 
system operator should extend to the lines, stations and men, in 
maintaining the necessary operating conditions. Emphasis 
should be placed upon the importance of co-operation between all 
departments and the system operator. Pertinent information 
withheld from the system operator may result in serious loss to 
a company. 

System operators should at all times be familiar with all the 
operating conditions existing at the various stations, substations 
and switching points. They should know the kind of coal used 
and the cost of it, unloaded, at the different steam plants. They 
should know the load at which the different generating units 
operate most efficiently, and the information they receive must 
be accurate if good and efficient work is to be done. They should 
be kept informed of the demands for power and of all changes 
in load as far in advance as possible, so that they can arrange to 
have different units placed in or out of service at the right time. 

Responsibility of System Operator. Generating apparatus 
should not be placed in or out of service without the permission 
of the system operator, and on small systems boiler-room men 
should not be allowed to cut boilers in or out of service or to clean 
fires without his sanction. On larger systems he should at least 
know how many are available for service at all times. Boiler- 
room economj^ is of the utmost importance these days, and boilers 
should be operated at the most efficient load. Steam plants 
should not be run with more boilers in service than are actually 
needed ; that is, ten boilers should not be fired when only eight are 
needed to carry the load. The load curve on steam plants should 
be straight for efficient and economical operation ; that is, a good 
load factor should be maintained. Boilers can be prevented from 
''blowing off" during the noon hour and light-load periods by an 
intelligent handling of the water at hydroelectric plants. 

System operators should aim to take care of peak loads with 
water power, and, as far as is practicable, water should be con- 
served for these periods. Sundays, holidays and other light- 



148 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

load periods can often be taken care of by means of water power, 
thus affording an opportune time to inspect, clean and repair 
steam-plant equipment. 

Hydroelectric Conditions and Coal Saving. Much energy 
can be conserved by a careful study of water conditions at the 
hydroelectric plants. The nature of the watershed, the amount 
and time of precipitation and the climatic conditions all affect 
operation, and some understanding of the flow and formation of 
a river is needed to know how soon or how much the pond would 
be affected after a given precipitation or thawing. The opera- 
tion of floodgates should be checked up from time to time to 
see that they are in working order, as failure of these gates to 
work at a critical time may result in much damage and loss. 

The determination of the most effective gate opening and the 
working of water down a river, through several water plants, as 
well as the handling of plants at times of low and high water, are 
economic problems that should be worked out so that, if possible, 
no water shall be wasted, the plants operated at the most effective 
head and a degree of protection maintained at all times. "When 
extensive repairs to lines or equipment are contemplated, making 
it necessary to shut down a plant for a considerable period, the 
system operator should be informed as far in advance as possible 
so that he can arrange to use all the available water ; thus as 
little as possible will be spilled while the repairs or changes are 
under way. 

System operators should have sketches showing the high- 
tension wiring in all power stations, substations and switching 
houses and data showing pole numbers at the principal points 
along the lines, such as road crossings, trolley stops, telephone 
test stations and other items descriptive of the lines that would 
be of assistance in handling intelligently any case of line trouble 
that may develop. They should keep themselves informed as to 
the immediate whereabouts of patrolmen, linemen, repairmen 
and all superior officers, so that there will be no delay in securing 
help or advice in an emergency. 

Competent line patrolmen are an invaluable help to the system 
operator, and reliable information received from them and acted 
upon may not only save equipment and prevent an interruption 
to service but may also eliminate a long period of inefficient 
operation. For example, a system operator may have planned to 



THE SYSTEM 149 

use a certain Hue and plants to carry an important loan, and 
owing- to the failure of the line, or to trouble on it, he may be 
forced to use a line and plants less efficient, and in addition water 
may be wasted at some of the dams. Accurate information re- 
ceived from a patrolman may prevent the trouble entirely or else 
give the system operator time to plan for the most efficient way 
out of the trouble, should it prove to be inevitable. 

System operators should give careful consideration to all high- 
tension line disturbances or surges that are reported. They may 
be caused by an arcing ground, and it is a well-established fact 
that trouble of this nature sets up surges and causes stresses, on 
delta-connected systems, which tend to weaken insulation on all 
lines and apparatus connected metallically to the defective part. 
Arcing grounds must be located and cleared from the system as 
soon as possible. An experienced operator should have little 
difficulty in locating transmission-line trouble on a modern high- 
tension system. 

Weather conditions and approaching storms should be care- 
fully noted and suitable preparations to take care of possible 
trouble should be made by checking up the whereabouts of patrol- 
men, linemen and repairmen. Reliable means of communication 
between the system operator and patrolmen, switching points and 
stations must be maintained, and the system operator should 
give this important matter careful thought and be prepared to 
act promptly should one of his lines of communication fail. 
System operators ' messages over the private telephone line should 
be given preference, and it should be understood by all con- 
cerned that any instructions given by them regarding the genera- 
tion and disposition of power should take precedence over all 
other instructions. Important messages should always be re- 
peated. 

The question of proper discipline is an important matter, and 
the morale of the men, as well as the condition of the equipment 
under their care, should have special consideration. All con- 
cerned should understand that co-operation with the system oper- 
ator tends toward safe, continuous and efficient work. 

STANDARDIZATION OF OVERHEAD CONSTRUCTION 

Standardization of construction in any line of work results in 
decided advantages at any time, but especially so under present 



150 



CUTTING CENTEAL STATION COSTS 



conditions, says H. E. A¥ulfing of the Commonwealth Edison 
Company, Chicago. There are a few advantages peculiar to 
overhead line construction which will bear emphasis. First, 
standardization eliminates the carrying in stock of special ma- 
terial to satisfy the ideas of the several foremen or superintend- 



HOMER: ST. 



INSr. NO. 5?^S44I7ARR. QK. 

REnAKM. our— 
afrGRb.T0SEC *' 




,CHAN6£^ ACCi TK££S 



REM. ■SN0.6P M.Am 
INST.'4''A.C>ur^ 



, ■ ^ , —CHANOE 



tNST.NOeOOADDL. 



INSri^'PeUY 

CHANGE NQ ST0NQ30 



CHANGE NO. 3 TO NO 30 
'DEAD END SEC. S 3310 



"^^M 



.REM. POLE 



^HURCHILL ST. 

REMihaep.M^^^'^'^ 




Fig. 43 — Typical Method of Indicating Work on Job Order 

ents engaged in the work. Next, it reduces the amount of ma- 
terial which has to be carried in stock by reducing the number of 
kinds of units needed. Third, it permits of accurately deter- 
mining in advance the correct amount of material needed on each 
job, since the material for each standard is definitely known and 
the material for a job will be equal to the sum of the material 
for the standards in connection with the job. In addition, it 
increases the efficiency of the gang, owing to the fact that the 
repeated performance of a job in a definite way increases the 
speed with which it is done. Again, it establishes uniform con- 
struction throughout the system. Sixth, it permits a comparison 
of the relative value of the gangs, as each gang does the same 
units of work in the same manner. And last, but not least, it 
reduces the cost of doing the work. 

The establishment of standards for overhead construction is 



THE SYSTEM 



151 



not so simple as iii most other work, liowever. No two jobs are 
alike and, while the elements of a job may be similar, the eon- 
ditions under which it will be done are different in each case. 
However, if overhead line work is to be made uniform, simple, 
neat in appearance and easy to designate, there must be stand- 
ards. The method of establishing such standards for the Com- 
monw^ealth Edison Company of Chicago are given in the follow- 
ing paragraphs. 

In this program of standardization, which extended over a 
period of two years, several requirements were considered. They 
were safety, simplicity, neatness in appearance, uniformity, 
practicability, fitness for a progressive construction program, and 
cost. 

How Cable Pole Construction Was Standardized. In order 
to give a concrete illustration of the manner in which some of 
these requirements have been met, the steps followed in standard- 




SERVICEARM 




Fio. 44 — Standard Cable-Pot-e Constiiuction Adopted 

izing a cable pole will be explained. When the standardization of 
cable poles was considered it was found that there were several 
types of construction in existence. This condition existed bo- 
cause men in charge of work in various districts had followed 
their own ideas and worked independently. The best type was 
selected, and the question of safety was first considered. Tliis 
pole contained six alley arms and three buck-arms and was de- 
signed to carry twelve potheads. It was found that the safety of 
the pole could be improved by adding another arm, on wiiich 
the lineman could stand while inspecting lightning arresters. 



152 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



This further loaded the already overburdened and unsightly pole. 
While the question of safety had thus been taken care of, sim- 
plicity of construction and neatness in appearance had been 
neglected. In order to attain this it was necessary to reduce the 
number of arms on the pole. 

It was found that the number of cases in which it was necessary 
to install twelve potheads on a cable pole were few. Therefore 
it was decided to design the cable pole for eight potheads, taking 
care of the cases in which twelve potheads were needed by setting 
another cable pole. This permitted the reduction of the number 
of buck-arms by one. The standing arm, which was originally 
installed for safety in inspecting lightning arresters, was then 
eliminated by installing the non-inspecting type of lightning 
arresters. Further consideration resulted in the elimination of 
services from the cable pole, and a standard was finally adopted 
having only three buck-arms and four line-arms as against the 
old type, which had four buck-arms and seven line-arms. The 
new standard (Fig. 44) is safer, simpler, neater in appearance, 
more practicable and costs less than any construction which was 
formerly used. 

A good illustration of progressive construction is given by the 
present type of standards for transformer installations. An in- 




FiG. 45— Typical Construction for Small Transformer Installations 

vestigation of the different types of construction brought out the 
fact that, as was found with the cable poles, there were many 
methods of installing transformers. It was also found that as 
the load on a transformer increases, and it is necessary to increase 
its size and therefore increase the strength of the equipment for 



THE SYSTEM 



153 



holding the transformer, it would be practically necessary in 
most cases to dismantle the previous construction and rebuild 
the transformer pole. Safety and appearance were already- 
fairly well taken into consideration, so that the main question was 
one of progressive construction. 

In the plan which was finally adopted the transformers are 
divided into groups with a type of installation for each group. 
The installations are so planned that when it is necessary to 
increase the size of a transformer of one group to the next larger 



PRIMARY MAIN ■ 



STANDARD 4-'^IN 
ALLEYAFtM 




PRIMARY PHASE 

TANDARD 6-PIN 
CROSS ARM 

SECONDARY 
MAIN 



6 T7?ANSP0RM£R 
ARM 



c- HEEL ARM 




Fig. 46 — Ample Space is Provided for Large Transformer by Bracing 
Used, While Extra Strength is Afforded by Double Buck-Arm 

Holding Transformer 

it is merely necessary to add another arm without disturbing the 
existing equipment other than the transformer itself. Incident- 
ally, simplicity and neatness in appearance were attained by pro- 
viding heavier arms to support the transformers rather than b}^ 
doubling the smaller sizes of arms (see Figs. 45 and 46). A 
change from the construction shown in Fig. 45 to that in Fig. 46 
can be made by merely adding a short buck-arm for additional 
strength without any change in Aviring. 

Once having established a standard, there are two things to be 
accomplished in order to put this standard into effect : First, to 
familiarize the man on the job with the construction standard ; 
second, to devise a scheme for specifying the standard on the job 
print. In order to keep the man on the job in touch witli 
standard construction, each gang foreman is supplied with a 
book of standards known as the ''Overhead Construction Specifi- 
cations." This book is pocket-size and contains a description of 



154 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



the methods of construction and prints of all the standards com- 
monly used, together with a list of material for each type of con- 
struction. The foreman is thus furnished with authoritative in- 
formation on whatever work he has in hand. 

On account of the large number of standards of overhead con- 
struction, it was evident that some system of symbols must be 



4-PIN ALLEY ARM 



6-PIN ALLEY ARM 




Fig. 47 — Pole-Top Construction Classified by Position of Ceoss-Abms 

ON Pole 

adopted in order that the standards might be classified and to 
permit ease of reference and specification on the job print. For 
this purpose the standards are divided into groups according to 
types — for example, cable poles in one group, transformer poles 
in another, line poles in another, etc. To each group is given a 
series of numbers sufficient to take care of the present standards 



THE SYSTEM 155 

and to allow for future standards that may be established. These 
symbols or numbers for designating the different types of stand- 
ard construction permit ready reference to the various groups 
and allow the use of simple specifications on the prints and jol) 
sheets. The foreman and men soon become familiar with the 
symbols and refer to the types of construction by symbol numbers 
instead of by description. 

In attempting to establish standards for the overhead work, it 
was found that they naturally divide themselves into two groups 
— one line poles, the other special poles. The number of special 
poles is limited, and it was a simple matter to assign symbol 
numbers to them ; but when it came to the question of assigning 
symbol numbers to line poles it was found that there were so 
many possible combinations of arms on a pole that the making of 
a sketch and assigning symbols to each combination was out of 
the question. It was therefore necessary to establish some 
scheme that would permit the definite designation of the arming 
of a line pole without the necessity of assigning to each group of 
arms a separate sketch and symbol. 

Study on a scheme of this kind resulted in the application of 
a decimal system (Fig. 47) for designating the arming of line 
poles. For instance, referring to the group of small figures in 
this illustration, Fig. 1 is a four-pin alley arm on the top line 
gain. When placed on the second line gain it is called Fig. 10 ; 
on the first buck gain, Fig. 100, and on the second buck gain, 
Fig. 1000. The arm doubled is designated by the next even 
number. In other words, the number designates the arm, and 
the units, tens, hundreds or thousands in a figure designate the 
position of the arm on the pole. For example. Fig. 30 represents 
a six-pin alley arm on the second line gain — the figure 3 identify- 
ing it as a six-pin alley arm, and its being in the tenth position 
identifying its location on the second line gain. 

The s])eeifying of the arming of a line pole is thus reduced to a 
symbol consisting of no more than four digits, and any combina- 
tion of four arms, either single or double, on any of the four 
positions can be specified by means of the decimal system shown. 
To illustrate further: Fig. 632 designates the arming of an 
ordinary line pole from which a service is taken and specifies that 
a double four-pin alley arm is installed on the top line gain, a 



156 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

single six-pin alley arm on the second line gain and a double six- 
pin buck-arm on the first buck gain. The simplicity of the desig- 
nating of the arming of line poles should be evident. 

WOODEN TOWER FOR A LONG-SPAN CROSSING 

To supply Camp Pike with service promptly the Little Rock 
Railway & Electric Company had to erect a 13,000-volt transmis- 
sion line within a very short period. Since the camp was on the 
opposite side of the Arkansas River from the company 's generat- 
ing station, a 2000-ft. (606-m.) span had to be provided to cross 
the river. One bank of the river was about 160 ft. (48.7 m.) 
higher than the other, so that a relatively tall tower was required 
on the lower side. Not being able to secure steel towers on short 
notice, the company erected a wooden one. 

The tower was constructed of four 75-ft. (23-m.) red-cedar 
poles securely embedded in concrete and cross-braced with 6-in. 
(15.2-cm.) diagonals. Cross-arms, 4 in. by 6 in. (10 cm. by 15.2 
cm.), were used. 

The total cost of the tower, which, furthermore, was com- 
pleted in the required time, was less than one-tenth that of the 
steel tower of the same strength. Of course, the wooden struc- 
ture will not have so long a life as a steel one would have had, 
but it is adequate for the purpose, as service will have to be sup- 
plied only temporarily. 

BRACING LINE TOWER 

By means of attaching a latticed structure to an ordinary 
straight-away line tower and then guying it at right angles to the 
line a company in New England was able to use a standard tower 
where an angle tower would ordinarily have been required. By 
so doing it avoided buying a special tower which would have been 
more expensive than the structure used. 

A branch line is attached to the tower at right angles to the 
through line at this point. This arrangement has proved per- 
fectly satisfactory from a structural point of view, and in these 
daj^s when economy has become compulsory it has much to 
recommend it. 



THE SYSTEM 157 

STEEL CONDUCTORS FOR SERIES CIRCUITS 

Although the use of steel conductors in transmission and dis- 
tribution circuits has advanced considerably, writes L. M. 
Klauber, superintendent Electric Department San Diego Con- 
solidated Gas & Electric Company, as a result of recent material 
markets, many companies still hesitate to use the cheaper metal 
because early experiments in some cases proved failures. Such 
failures have been both mechanical and electrical. Mechanical 
failures have occurred owing to rapid corrosion of the conductor 
or to annealing following short circuits. Most of these cases, 
however, have been found upon investigation to have involved 
the use of solid conductors of comparatively small size, such as 
No. 6 or No. 8 B.W.G., attempts having been made to use con- 
ductors similar in mechanical form to the copper superseded. 
Extra-galvanized stranded steel, on the other hand, has long been 
extensively used for guys, and its life as a conductor ma}^ there- 
fore be closely estimated by any central station, the estimate 
being based on the performance of guys in the same regions. 

Electrical failures have been due to insufficient data on the 
electrical characteristics of steel conductors, and particularly to 
lack of consideration of the skin effect in solid conductors, which 
results in excessive drop at higher current densities. But exten- 
sive data on this subject have recently appeared, especially cover- 
ing the stranded steel largely used in guys, so that the principal 
uncertainty which now remains has to do with the characteris- 
tics of the load, both present and prospective. Obviously, sav- 
ings through the use of steel result primarily from the fact that 
in certain classes of lines copper of greater cross-section than is 
electrically necessary must be used for mechanical reasons. For 
this reason, an economical steel substitute will have less capacity 
for increased load than the copper replaced. It is therefore 
essential in designing steel lines that regulation and losses be 
closely calculated and that suitable allowances be made for future 
load increases. 

One case in which most of the factors and results may be 
closely calculated in advance has to do with the use of steel con- 
ductors in series street-lighting circuits. In this case current 
and hours of use are fixed so that losses may be predetermined 
exactly. Since increased load involves increased pressure per 



158 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

circuit or increase in number of circuits, there is not the possi- 
bility of having to replace steel with copper upon acquisition of 
unexpected new business. Furthermore, there is no possibility 
of deterioration of the line by annealing during short circuits. 
If stranded steel guy cable is used, the life may be gaged from 
previous performances. 

Formula for Choice of Conductor Material. It is obvious 
that the economical choice between steel and copper will depend 
on a number of factors which are different for each individual 
case. Of fundamental importance are the costs of the two ma- 
terials, rates of interest and depreciation and the cost of energy. 
In general, it may be said that steel will be the cheaper when the 
annual fixed charges on a copper line are greater than the fixed 
charges on the steel line plus the increased energy losses by 
reason of the use of steel plus the fixed charges on the additional 
constant-current substation apparatus required because of the 
greater losses in the steel as compared with copper. Stating this 
in the form of an equation: 

FcCc — FsCs — L{HW + FeCe) =X. 

It will be more economical to use steel when X is positive ; when 
X is negative copper is preferable. 

In the preceding equation, Fc, Fs and Fe represent respectively 
the rates of interest plus depreciation on copper lines, steel lines 
and substation equipment. Cc and Cs represent the first cost of 
unit lengths of copper and steel lines. This cost must be the cost 
in place, including overhead expense, since when lines must be 
removed the total cost in place must be retired from service. Ce 
represents the first cost of series lighting transformers per kilo- 
watt. L equals the excess loss in kilowatts in a unit length of steel 
over copper. This quantity evidently depends on the current in 
the series circuit and the relative resistances of the two conduc- 
tors at this particular current density, it being remembered that 
the alternating current resistance of the steel varies with the 
current density. H represents the annual hours burning in the 
street-lighting system under consideration. TV is the cost of 
energy per kilowatt-hour delivered at the substation buses ; this 
item should, however, include only those elements of production 
cost which vary with output (i.e., fuel cost in steam plants). 

Were the relative prices of steel and copper to remain in con- 



THE SYSTEM 



159 



stant ratio with markets fluctuating proportionately, either the 
one metal or the other would be invariably preferred for certain 
circuits. This, however, has not been the case, especially under 
recent abnormal conditions, as shown by Fig. 48, which gives the 
relative costs of steel and copper deduced from the purchasing 
department records of one central station for the last eight years. 
It may be seen that the cost of copper wire has varied from about 
twice to nearly five times the value of steel wire. Under such 
changing conditions it is logical that sometimes one and some- 
times the other metal is more economical. 

Application of Formula to a Particular Case. In order to 
illustrate the application of the above formula, two cases are 
assumed, one comparing bare copper with bare steel, the other 
double-braid weatherproof copper with weatherproof steel. The 
prices assumed should not be considered as indicative of present 
costs, since they are rather those which applied some months ago : 

In giving values to Fc, Fs and Fc interest is taken at 6 per cent. 
Bare copper is assumed to have a life of thirty years and a junk 
value of 40 per cent. (In each case the junk value represents the 
sale price as junk less cost of removal.) Weatherproof copper is 
presumed to have a twenty-year life and a 30 per cent junk value, 
since the serviceable life of an insulated conductor is in reality 
the life of the covering; for, regardless of the life of the metal, 
it must be removed when the covering becomes abraded. For 




1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 i9li5 1917 I9id 



Fic. 48 — Fluctuations in Ratio Between Copper and 
Steel Costs During Nine Years 



this service weatherproof steel may be assigned the same life as 
copper, although the junk value will be zero. Bare double-gal- 
vanized steel under normal conditions (away from salt fogs or 
corrosive fumes) is assumed to have a life of fifteen years and to 
be without net salvage value. Constant-current transformers 
are assigned a life of thirty years and a salvage value of 10 per 
cent. Basing depreciation calculations on the 



straight-line 



160 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

method and adding interest at 6 per cent, the following conditions 
exist : 

Weatherproof Bare 

F^ 0.095 0.080 

fI 0.110 .0.1267 

F 0.090 0.090 

e 

Practically all series lines are No. 6 copper, so only this size 
will be considered. The best steel substitute appears to be %-in. 
(0.63-cm.) extra-galvanized standard steel strand. Assuming 
copper (weatherproof or bare) at 34 cents per pound (75 cents 
per kilogram) at the storeroom, bare steel at 8 cents (17.6 cents) 
and weatherproof steel at 11 cents (24.2 cents), adding 4 cents 
per pound (8.8 cents per kilogram) as the cost ^ of stringing and 
15 per cent overhead, and considering 1000 ft. (304.8 m.) as the 
unit of length throughout, with bare copper weighing 79.5 lb. 
per 1000 ft. (118 kg. per km.), double-braid weatherproof copper 
100 lb. (149 kg. per km.), bare steel 125 lb. (185 kg. per km.) and 
weatherproof steel 155 lb. (230 kg. per km.), the following is 
true: 

Weatherproof Bare 

G^ . . , $43.70 $34.74 

C"" 26.74 17.25 

s 

(0 is assumed to be $12.50.) 

In the determination of L the resistance of copper is taken as 
0.395 ohm. Within the comparatively small range of commercial 
alternating-current series circuits (4 amp. to IV2 amp.) there is 
little change in the resistance of M-in. (0.63-cm.) galvanized steel, 
the total increase at the higher density being about 3 per cent 
above the lower. This is less of a variation than that found 
between individual samples and may therefore be neglected. 
The 60-cycle alternating-current resistance of %-in. (0.63-cm.) 
extra-galvanized seven-strand standard steel at these densities 
has been found by various investigators to be from 1.62 ohms to 
1.78 ohms per 1000 ft. (5.3 ohms, to 5.8 ohms, per km.). Taking 
1.70 as an average, and assuming a 6.6-amp. series circuit, 
L = 0.0568, H may be taken as 4000 for all-night lighting cir- 
cuits, 2600 for moonlight and 2200 for midnight circuits. W 

1 There is practically no difference in the cost of erecting copper and 
steel. 



THE SYSTEM 161 

obviously differs for each individual case and is here taken at 
$0,005. 

Substituting the preceding values in the equation, the follow- 
ing values of X are obtained : 



'to 



Circuit Weatherproof Bare 

All-ni(;lit 0.01 — 0.61 

Moonlitrht 0.41 — 0.21 

Midniglit 0.52 — 0.10 

Thus in each assumed case it will be found more economical to 
use weatherproof steel rather than weatherproof copper, but bare 
copper (if line and ordinance conditions permit the use of un- 
covered conductors) is to be preferred to bare steel. 

Assuming the same constants but a 4-amp. circuit, L = 0.0209 ; 
therefore it will pay to use steel in every instance. 

Most Economical Size of Wire to Use. Of the various sizes 
of standard steel strand, %-in. (0.63 cm.) will usually be found 
preferable for series circuits. Smaller sizes lack strength and 
are not so readily obtainable as the sizes used for guys. Al- 
though largely used in multiple circuits where steel is employed, 
5/16-in. (7.9-mm.) cable will generally be less economical than 
Vi in. in series circuits. This can be shown as follows : Consider 
5/16-in. bare steel weighing 210 lb. per 1000 (312 kg. per km.) 
and double-braid weatherproof weighing 255 lb. (378 kg. per 
km.). By substituting the same unit prices and depreciation 
rates as were assumed in the case of %-in. cable, omitting fixed 
charges on substation equipment, as they are of minor impor- 
tance, and assuming that tlie alternating-current resistance of 
5/16-in. (7.9-mm.) standard strand is 1.25 ohms per 1000 ft. 
(4.1 ohms per km.) at the current densities under consideration, 
the original equation reduces to : 

1.486 — 0A5PnW = X for bare 
and 1.898 — OA^PHW = X for weatherproof. 

Thus for 6.6-amp. series circuits it will be more economical to 
use 5/16-in. (7.9-mm.) strand than ^/4-in. (0.63-cm.) cable only 
when the cost of energy per kilowatt-hour at the substation ex- 
ceeds the following : 

Weatherproof Bare 

All-ni<jht $0,024 $0,019 

Moonlight 0.037 0.020 

Midnight 0.044 0.035 



162 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



It may therefore be seen that M-m. strand is to be preferred in all 
ordinary cases. 

Other Considerations That Affect Choice. Of course, in a 
problem of this nature, involving a choice between copper and 
steel, or between two sizes of steel, the mere balancing of reduced 
fixed charges against increased operating expenses is not alwaj^s 
the sole controlling factor. Where work is of a temporary char- 
acter, as for camp or protective lighting, the element of deprecia- 
tion which operates so strongly in favor of copper is more nearly 






]i 



ll 



V.VT 



Jif 



It 



It 



A 



n j jii^ 

It ZIL 






A 



ll 






J l £ j l i ! L .-^J Ji L J _ 

I I'.T 1 !r \W I IT I 




Best route for copper o Steel lamps 

Best route for steel • Poles required for eithercopper or steel 

X Extra poles which would be required if copper followed stee! route 
( Alley poles required for commercial lighting omitted ) 

Blocks 300'x 600' Streets 60' 



Fig. 49 — Comparative Layouts Using Steel and Copper 

equal for the two metals, and steel is usually to be preferred. 
Again, there are occasions when difficulty in raising funds 
renders desirable a reduced cost of installation, even at the 
expense of slightly increased operating expenses over a term of 
years. 

There are other cases in which considerable savings may be 
made in first cost, owing to the increased tensile strength of the 
steel permitting wider pole spacings. An example of such a case 
is shown in Fig. 49. It is assumed that blocks are 300 ft. by 600 
ft. (91 m. by 183 m.), with 80-ft. (24-m.) streets, and that com- 
mercial lighting feeders and mains are run in the alleys. The 
most economical system of covering the territory with steel takes 
only about 62 per cent as much line as the copper method shown. 
Besides, the construction is much simplified at corners and many 



THE SYSTEM 



163 



dead-ends and anchors are eliminated. The route outlined for 
the steel circuit is impossible with copper unless extra poles be 
added as indicated. This would considerably increase the cost 
and would be undesirable from a public-policy viewpoint, as it is 
preferable to have poles onl}" on street corners where they carry 
street lamps. 

On the other hand, with steel conductors it is perfectly feasible 
and safe to jump 380 ft. (116 m.) from alley to alley in the blocks 
where street lamps are missing, thus permitting the simplified 
system of passing back and forth on cross streets. 



LONG SPANS PERMITTED BY STEEL WIRES A 

SAVING 

Steel conductors not only effect a saving due to reduced cost 
per unit of length, but also, owing to greater tensile strength 
and reliability, permit wider spacings in supports. Poles, cross- 



V^here both spans fo this pole ore less 
than 500' run the 4 guys to two anchors 
Where either of spans to this pole exceeds 
JOO run each gutf 'o a seperate anchor 



Where txjth spans to ins pole ore less 
than 500 run These Tivo guys to one anchor 

Where either of spans to rhs po/e etceeds 
500 ryn each guy to a seperate anchor 




ELEVATION 



ELEVATION 

Fig. 50 — Construction Employed for 70-deg. to 110-deg, Angles and for 
TO 70-DEG. OR 110 to 160-deg. Angles 

arms, insulators and line hardware have all advanced greatly in 
price and the reduction in the cost of supporting structures by 
the use of steel is as important as the saving in the conductor 
itself. 

The Pacific Coast companies have for some time past used com- 
paratively long pole spacings with copper conductors and wood- 
pole lines. Standard spans of 350 ft. (106.7 m.) with No. 6 or 



164 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



No. 4 solid, or 450 ft. (137.2 m.) with No. 2 or No. 1 stranded 
medium hard-drawn bare-copper conductors, have been used ex- 
tensively without the slightest difficulty. 

With the advent of steel conductors it was seen at once that 
these spans could be greatly exceeded with absolute safety. 
After several branches were put in by the San Diego Consoli- 
dated Gas & Electric Company, using ^/4-in. (6.3-mm.) standard 
steel and 550-ft. (167.6-m.) spans, 700 ft. (213.4 m.) was selected 
as a standard, and many miles of line have been built with spans 
of this length. Naturally, large sags were necessary with these 
spans. Although flat construction had always been used in dis- 
tribution circuits employing copper conductors, the old-style tri- 





FRONT ELEVATION 



SI D€ ELEVATION 



When double arms are 
. , ^_ used on accoun t a f angle, 

i''L place fop pin on side of 
^^i__^pole againsf sfrain. 



s^- 




When double arms are 
used on accoun f of long 
spans, place fop pin on 
face of Pole. 




FRONT ELEVATION 



(Double Arm)(5ingle Arnj) 
SIDE ELEVATIONS 



Fig. 51 — Construction Employed in Spans not Exceeding 1000 ft., or 
175-DEG. to 180-deg. Angles (Use Double Arms at all Angles, Cross- 
ings, AND FOR Spans 500 ft. or Longer) and for Dead-end Points, or 
160-deg. to 175-deg, Angles (in Tangents Over One Mile in Length 
Use One per Mile) 

angular construction, with a pole-top pin, was adopted, with steel 
to give greater clearances between conductors. 

The use of steel conductors and long spans introduces no diffi- 
culties. With the greater strains experienced, guying at cor- 
ners must receive careful consideration. As a rule stubs must 



THE SYSTEM 165 

be specially lieavy and anchored. Anchor guys must be used in 
quantity; at sharp corners four and six anchors to the pole are 
occasionally required. 

The San Diego company had by the beginning of 1918 in- 
stalled in main or branch lines exceeding a mile in length 68.6 
circuit miles (201.3 wire miles) of steel conductors of ^/4-in., ^ic-in. 
%-in. standard steel. In addition there are 25 miles (75 wire 
miles) under construction. Also there are 52.5 wire miles of M- 
in. steel in constant-current series circuits. Most of the con- 
stant-potential circuits are 11 kv., although a few are 2300 volts. 

A brief summary of the specifications used in a recent 11-mile 
(17.7-km.) extension of an 11 kv. line follows: 

Conductor. — %-in. extra-galvanized, standard steel, seven-strand. 

Spans. — 700 ft. Vary as dictated by topography of country, taking 
advantage of knolls and hill tops. Spans not to be shortened at cor- 
ners. Maximum single-pole spans to be 1000 ft.; terminate spans 
exceeding 1000 ft. on double pole structures. In spans exceeding 1500 
ft. use high-strength steel. Shorten spans to 200 ft. where possible in 
crossing railroads, main highways and telephone toll leads. 

Clearances. — Minimum clearances over railroads, 28 ft.; over trav- 
eled highways, 24 ft.; over other supply lines or communication lines, 
6 ft. 

Poles. — Class A Western red cedar with open-tank treated butts. 
Standard pole on tangents, 40 ft.; at corners, 45 ft. Other lengths as 
required by topography. Set at N. E. L. A. standard depths. All 
poles to be shaved and gained at pole yard. 

Wire Arrangement. — Triangular with vertical comers. 

Transpositions. — Six-mile barrels unless by special agreement with 
communication companies. 

Cross-Arms. — S^^-in. by 4^/^-in. by 8-ft. Douglass fir, painted with 
two coats of yellow cement paint. 

Braces. — 28-in. galvanized N. E. L. A. standard. 

Pins. — St. Louis Malleable Casting Company No. 435 R galvanized 
with felt insertion. 

Pole-Top Pms.— Hubbard No. 3020. 

Insulators.— Ohio Brass No. 12546 or Locke No. 5155 (27,000 volts). 

Strain Insulators. — Locke No. 3039 in pairs. A complete dead-end 
consists of one spring clevis, two No. 3039 strain insulators, %-in. gal- 
vanized thimble and two three-bolt guy clamps. 

Tie Wire.— Galvanized steel. Use one strand of the %-in. conductor 
48 in. long. Use a double back tie. 



166 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

Splices.— ^pliee with live three-bolt guy clamps and two %-in. thim- 
bles. No solder. 

Quys. — %-m. extra-galvanized standard steel, same as conductor. 
Use double sets of three-bolt guy clamps. 

Guy Insulators. — White's No. 506. Use one strain insulator in each 
guy, 4 ft. to 8 ft. from the pole. Also in the lower ends of guys 
attached to stubs not anchored. 

Anchors. — Use pyramidal concrete anchors except in marshy 
ground, where treated wood slugs must be used. Where spans adjacent 
to comers exceed 500 ft. use pairs of anchors. Anchor stub guys in 
soft ground or where stub holds a corner adjacent to a span exceeding 
500 ft. Anchor rods to be standard %-in. galvanized, 8 ft. long. Use 
anchor boxes where required for the protection of persons. 

Stubs. — Stubs to be Western red cedar poles 16 ft. 9 in. to 19 ft. 6 
in. in length. Minimum top, 28 in. ; minimum circumference 6 ft. from 
butt, 34 in. 

Switches. — Line switches. Pacific Electric No. 1420; transformer 
switches. Pacific Electric No. 422-F. 

Hardware. — All bolts, clamps, lag screws and miscellaneous hard- 
ware to be galvanized in accordance with N. E. L. A. specifications. 

Special Foundations. — Set poles in concrete at heavy marshes. Use 
trussed pole set in concrete or push brace where anchors cannot be 
placed. 

DETERMINING LABOR COSTS 

In order to find out if it w^ill pay to supply a prospective con- 
sumer with electric energy it is always well, writes A. G. Drury, 
to determine beforehand the cost of material and labor. The 
labor cost has risen to such an extent recently that the old meth- 
ods of estimating this cost have grown obsolete. A rule that can 
be applied at any time is one that uses the man-hour as a basis 
of cost — that is, the number of men multiplied by the hours they 
work. This figure may be multiplied by the prevailing wake. 

From a study of the time required to perform various line con- 
struction operations the author has concluded that the following 
units are conservative for checking estimates: Loading and un- 
loading one pole, 2 man-hours ; haulage per mile, 15 man-hours ; 
digging and setting one 35-ft. (10.6 m.) wood pole, 4 man-hours; 
equipping one four-pin cross-arm with pins and insulator and 
attaching to pole 2.5 man-hours; stringing and tying 100 ft. 
(30.4 m.) of conductor to insulators, 2 man-hours. 

While the time required for the different items of construction 



THE SYSTEM 167 

may seem liberal, consideration must be given to the fact that 
some time is lost both at starting and afterward. 

SERVICE INSTALLATION BY ONE CREW 

Handling all of the operations that go to make a customer's 
service installation complete in one job through the use of a single 
crew saves the St. Joseph (Mo.) Railway, Light & Power Com- 
pany considerable mone3\ Estimates made by the distribution 
department place this saving at $2 per service. 

The crew, consisting of one foreman, two linemen, one ground- 
man and one meterman, is able to string No. 6 B. & S. gage service 
wire to the consumer's premises, install the meter and connect 
the line so that energy is available in about one-half hour. The 
average cost of labor, including a charge of 30 cents per hour for 
maintenance of the crew's automobile, amounts to $1.11. The 
best record which such a crew ever made for installation of serv- 
ices in one day is sixty-five. Another advantage of this arrange- 
ment is the psychological effect upon the customer who sees the 
work completed by one set of men instead of by several crews 
with a long lapse of time between operations. 

UTILIZATION OF SECOND-HAND LINE MATERIALS 

Of course, economy must not be allowed to interfere with 
maintaining a high standard of service ; but, in attempting to 
decrease expenses by the standardization of equipment and the 
adoption of more efficient or durable apparatus, sight should not 
be lost, states L. ]\I. Klauber, Superintendent Electric Depart- 
ment, San Diego Consolidated Gas & Electric Company, of the 
economy of utilizing discarded material and equipment. Here 
is where the construction department, which acts in the capacity 
of contractor to the operating department, has an opportunity to 
determine how this so-called scrap material can be utilized to best 
advantage. 

With the increased cost of all raw materials, a careful study of 
scrap, that is, material Avhich can be disposed of only as junk, 
should be instituted b}' all central stations. Metals, alloys, scrap 
rubber, etc., should be carefully segregated as to quality, so that 
the highest price may be obtained for each. The degree of segre- 



168 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

gation which should be practiced will depend upon the specific 
conditions in each case, the quantity of each class of scrap accum- 
ulated, and proximity to raw material markets. Disposal direct 
to junk dealers will save much trouble, but in any case a certain 
segregation is advisable. A miscellaneous scrap heap is the junk 
man 's picnic ; he pays a skim-milk price, based on the least val- 
ued metal in the pile, and then separates the cream in the privacy 
of the junk yard. Other material and equipment can be reno- 
vated and used for a new service which is not so exacting. 

Methods of Utilizing Old Poles. Poles form the greatest 
bulk of distribution plant removed. Poles of adequate length 
and size can be retreated and used again, if not too badly de- 
teriorated ; others may be too light or too worn. It becomes 
necessary, therefore, to segregate returned poles into three gen- 
eral groups — those which may be reissued as poles for standard 
work, those too light or short for such work, and those no longer 
of any value as poles. 

Retired poles which are deemed adequate to re-use as such by 
a power company must first be carefully examined for sound- 
ness. The butt can usually be sawed off about 6 in. (15.2 cm.) 
above the old ground line if weakened by decay. In fact, it 
usually pays to discard the butt if decay has advanced beyond a 
surface sap rot. Sometimes about 3 ft. (0.9 m.) of the butt can 
be removed so that when the pole is reset the deteriorated por- 
tion falls so far below the surface that it will not be subject to 
rot. In any case the pole should be carefully treated to arrest 
further decay, otherwise the life after reinstallation will be short. 
Brush treatment is better than nothing, but an open-tank treat- 
ment is much to be preferred. 

In these days of greater strength of construction and wider 
clearances, the 30-ft. (9.1-m.) poles with 5-in. (12.7-cm.) tops, 
commonly referred to by linemen as ''toothpicks," have little 
place. In a rapidly growing community they accumulate in 
considerable quantities. Installation on rural branch lines often 
solves the problem of their disposal. In some locations villa lots 
are so large that a special-service pole is required between the 
main lead and each house. An old 30-ft. or 25-ft. (9.1-m. or 7.6- 
m.) pole serves well for this purpose. Short poles can some- 
times be used in rolling country on long-span work, where neces- 
sary clearances can be secured by taking advantage of the hill- 



THE SYSTEM 169 

tops. A short pole as a push brace will often solve a difficult 
problem where anchor rights cannot be obtained. One avenue of 
disposal of lig-ht poles wliich must not be overlooked is to com- 
munication companies. Telephone and telegraph construction, 
especially in rural districts, is ordinarily of lighter quality than 
that of supply lines, and often a lot of light second-hand poles in 
sound condition can be disposed of to such companies at a price 
well above scrap value. 

If a pole is no longer fit to use as such, the next best service 
to which it can be put is as a guy stub. Ordinarih' a guy is 
a poor location for second-hand material, since failure is expen- 
sive and care must be taken not to emploj^ stubs that are too 
light. If insufficient for use as stubs, poles may be cut up as 
anchor slugs or for crib-bracing unguyed poles under strain. 
Light pieces may be sold to farmers for fence posts. Poles are 
useful in all heavy construction work and can be disposed of to 
contractors, house movers and the like. Square redwood poles 
were once used considerably in some parts of the country before 
the price became prohibitive. They may be sawed up and put to 
a variety of uses, particularly in rough building work. They are 
also valuable in the construction of mudsills, bog shoes or crow- 
feet for holding poles in marshy ground, owing to the durability 
of redwood in the presence of moisture. A piece of redwood 
makes an especially good anchor slug. 

Failing in all other uses, poles may be cut up for firewood. 
Yet the,y are not so well adapted to this use as might be thought. 
Cedar soon chars in the ordinary fireplace and burns with diffi- 
culty. It is a fact testified to by many operators that a pole 
which catches fire from a defective insulator will easily burn 
down at 2 a. m. in a heavy rainstorm, but will when cut and 
dry stubbornly refuse to burn up in a perfectly good fireplace. 

Use of Discorded Cross-Anns. Non-standard cross-arms, 
even though in good condition, are difficult to place, since they 
will not match with new material and are especially bothersome 
when double-arm pairs are desired. Older cross-arms are liable 
to be small in every dimension — shorter, of smaller cross-section 
or with less clearance between pinholes. The clearance between 
the pins next to the pole is often less than permitted by law or 
good practice. A solution of the difficulty as to second-hand 
arms lies in their use as service buck-arms. Though more expen- 



170 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

si ve than brackets, the buck-arm has advantages as to clearances, 
making a neat and safe installation, especially where a number of 
services leave a pole in a variety of directions. 

One company which utilizes retired non-standard arms for 
buck-arms places an average of 2000 arms per year in such serv- 
ice, thereby utilizing the entire non-standard accumulation. If 
these second-hand arms are found to have a ''pole-pin" separa- 
tion too narrow to comply with standard practice, it is a good 
plan to fill one of the pole-pin holes with a 1^/^-in. (4.31-cm.) 
wooden plug which can be nailed in place. A new through-bolt 
hole can then be drilled about 4 in. (10.16 cm.) off center to- 
ward the plugged hole and the arm mounted off center. This 
increases the clearance between the remaining pole pin and the 
pole by 4 in. Three pin positions remain available for use, 
these being all that are required for a lighting service. The off- 
set buck-arm does not look bad on a pole, and, besides the ad- 
vantage of increase clearance, it permits the use of one short or 
non-standard cross-arm brace with each arm, thus utilizing an 
additional second-hand item. 

Other uses to which old cross-arms may be put are those which 
might be filled by any lumber of similar size, such as fence posts 
for wire fences, blocking for the storage of poles, cross-arms and 
other materials, cross-pieces for pole-hole covers, and, in general, 
rough construction work. 

Reinstalling' Old Wire. Weatherproof copper wire removed 
from the lines should be carefully examined before it is rein- 
stalled. If the impregnating compounds have been fried out, it 
will be better to skim it at once and use it where bare wire is 
permissible rather than to have it become stringy and an eyesore 
in a short time. Many places will be found in suburban and 
agricultural districts where bare wire is as useful as weather- 
proof, provided that it has retained its strength. Some of the 
very oldest wire removed, particularly solid wire in sizes from 
No. 2 up, will be found to be crystallized and weakened by re- 
peated bending. Such wires should not be reinstalled on the 
lines, as they will only result in failures. In reeling up second- 
hand wire for line use, the old splices should be carefully exam- 
ined. Many will be found weak and of poor workmanship, since 
splicing was not so carefully done in the old days as now. 



THE SYSTEM 171 

Short lengths of good quality, eitlier weatherproof or bare, 
should be saved for ties. Annealed wire makes a better tie than 
medium hard-drawn, particularly when tying bare wire with bare 
wire. If wire is annealed and the insulation is removed by burn- 
ing, the fire should be started in the open, not in any form of 
furnace, and the wire must not be allowed to become overheated 
or it will lose its strength. 

One use to which larger sizes of copper can be put after the 
insulation has worn off, and even after the wire has crystallized, 
is for grounded neutrals in underground secondaries. Where 
secondaries are well grounded at transformers and where prac- 
tically ever}^ service conduit is likewise grounded and tied to the 
neutral, insulated neutrals would appear an unnecessary expense. 
Such systems are in operation, using bare neutrals entirely from 
the transformers to the various branch terminals at customers' 
entrance fuses, and no difficulties have been experienced due to 
loading and heating of adjacent cable coverings by leakage cur- 
rents. 

Bare scraps may be used as ground wires on transformer poles, 
provided that the vertical run is covered with a wood molding or 
fiber conduit, as is usually done even where non-weatherproof 
wire is employed. 

Places for Retired Insulators. Insulators, especially pin- 
type insulators, present a different problem. Unless entirely 
destroyed they are more liable to be unsuitable because of inade- 
quacy than because of deterioration. Owing to developments 
made by the manufacturers, greater factors of safety can be 
required and are used than were deemed necessary some years 
ago, so that many of the insulators being retired may no longer 
be utilized for their designed voltage. Companies having lines 
of various voltages are sometimes enabled to use old insulators 
on lower-voltage systems. This seldom pays, however, if the 
voltage steps are large, so that cumbersome insulators, subject 
to breakage and unnecessarily large pins, must be provided for 
use at the lower pressure. Some companies serving extensive 
territories in which a variety of service conditions are encoun- 
tered find that insulators which have become inadequate in one 
district may be utilized for lines of similar voltage in sections 
where conditions are less severe. For instance, companies with 



172 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

lines along the seacoast may find that insulators which have 
proved to be inadequate under fog and spray conditions will give 
perfect service on the same lines in interior valleys. 

Glass insulators, even of obsolete type, will ordinarily be found 
useful on secondary systems, provided that they have standard 
pin holes. Sizes smaller than those now standard for line con- 
struction should be used on service brackets. 

On the whole, porcelain insulators, on account of their limited 
uses, offer a difficult problem when obsolete, and large numbers 
must be scrapped. It pays to have a few old types available for 
emergency connections and testing about any plant, for insulat- 
ing stools and staging and for temporary service during con- 
struction work. 

Strain insulators are more flexible devices, and if in good con- 
dition use may be found for most obsolete types. Glass ' ' bobs, ' ' 
formerly used in large quantities in guys, are being abandoned 
for more dependable porcelain, but they will be found quite ade- 
quate for the house ends of service loops. They may also be used 
in the lighter types of guys, such as arm and bridle guys, and 
in dead-ending light secondaries. Two-bolt and small obsolete 
three-bolt guy chains should also be used up on these light guys. 

Some prototypes of the modern clevis cap suspension insulator 
which are useful in dead-ending 11-kv. to 22-kv. lines are with 
difficulty made up into strings, as they have an eye at each end. 
These may be made up into neat pairs by using one new clevis 
cap unit at the line end of each pair, thus eliminating connect- 
ing links. 

Uses for Old Pins, Space Bolts, Etc. The lead bushing is an 
exceedingly useful device in remodeling metal pins. Combina- 
tion pins having a steel through bolt, porcelain base and wood 
thimble are becoming obsolete with most companies in high-volt- 
age work, owing to the rapid digesting or destruction of the wood. 
The wood thimbles may be readily split off, and by means of plas- 
ter-of-paris molds these may be replaced by new lead thimbles, 
resulting in a pin actually superior in strength and durability to 
the original articles. Metal pins with obsolete threads may be 
bushed with lead and thus rendered serviceable where otherwise 
they must be scrapped. 

All-wood pins are of little service when deteriorated, although 



THE SYSTEM 173 

the shanks may be used as the pin-hole plugs for three-pin service 
buck-arms as previously mentioned. 

One use of obsolete small cross-arm braces was mentioned in 
connection with these buck-arms. Other applications will be 
found in connection with special construction Avork, particularly 
around substations. 

Lio-ht space bolts and throug'h bolts, usualh' y2 in. (1.27 cm.) 
where % in. (1.59 cm.) are now standard, will of course be found 
of service in construction around any plant. There are also a 
few special uses to which these may be put in connection with 
line work. Where angle-iron braces are used with large-size 
cross-arms, two ^/^-in. (1.27 cm.) bolts are required with each 
brace, and these may be made up from old through bolts which 
have been shortened. The threaded end of a cut-off space bolt 
may be used as a stud with that type of pin which consists of a 
malleable-iron top and a separable stud bolt. Such studs with 
two nuts (one battered on) make good short bolts for attaching 
strain insulators to universal dead-ending clevises or similar de- 
vices. It is interesting to note that one of the few advantages 
which cut-thread have over rolled-thread bolts is in their use as 
second-hand material, the cut thread permitting modification for 
other uses better. 

Pole steps are not installed by power companies these days to 
such an extent as formerly. At one time all poles were stepped. 
Now it is usually the custom to step only transformer, switch 
and arc-lamp poles and sometimes not even these. Consequently 
most companies accumulate a considerable stock of second-hand 
pole steps. On account of the hook shape they have many useful 
purposes in miscellaneous work. They can be employed as spikes 
for industrial railways, as tent stakes, as cable racks in manholes, 
and as form hooks and anchors for future extensions in concrete 
work. They are useful about a warehouse as hooks for tools 
and ropes. A few may be used inverted as hooks to hold the 
rink at the low^er end of arc-lamp chains or ropes where reels 
are not used. Occasionally they may serve as lag screws. The 
communication companies are still faithful to pole steps, and they 
should not be overlooked as a possible outlet for the surplus. 

Many forms of metal scrap are useful as reinforcing in con- 
crete. If concrete anchor slugs are used, old bolts, pole steps and 



174 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

braces will make excellent reinforcing. Short pieces of guy cable, 
whether new or retired, are also useful as reinforcing in any con- 
crete building work. There is always a considerable waste in 
guying a line unless the men are careful in cutting to length and 
use short ends between the pole and the strain insulator. Where 
steel conductors are used short pieces of guy cable are luiraveled 
for ties. 

Brackets of old types can usually be disposed of in special 
service work. In these days of military camps wood brackets are 
useful for distribution systems among the tents. One company 
wiring a large camp used up a year's accumulation stringing 
secondaries bracketed on short square poles between tent groups 
and to latrines and messhouses. 

Inclosed carbon arcs are giving way to gas-filled tungsten-fila- 
ment units. The retired arcs may often be employed with slight 
modifications to house the incandescent lamps. Arc-lamps coils, 
whether series or shunt, are very useful around repair shops or 
laboratories and in the manufacture of home-made relays, switch 
mechanisms, etc. Therefore a number should be saved when 
lamps are scrapped. Arc-lamp carbons of obsolete size may be 
set up in groups and used as rheostats. A few old arc reels will 
be found serviceable around any plant as light hoists. Old 
shades, whether glass or steel, may be employed as reflectors with 
incandescent lamps. Clear-glass globes of the closed type can 
be sold to furniture stores for fish globes. Arc-lamp chains in 
long or short pieces will be found to serve many useful purposes. 
They are handy in threading through vertical runs of conduit. 
Short lengths will serve as pipe or conduit hangers under build- 
ings. A secondary dead-end of the strain type, readily attach- 
able to the end of any space or through-bolt and having all metal 
parts galvanized, may be cheaply made up with a porcelain strain 
insulator, a short piece of arc chain, a lap link and a dead-ending 
clevis. 

Disposing of Other Materials. Transformers and meters 
when retired are generally returned to the manufacturers for 
credit on new goods. When this is not done some parts may be 
saved from the scrap pile to advantage. Transformer cases with 
leads intact make excellent waterproof cases for the installation 
of meters, instrument transformers or relays in the open. Occa- 
sionally a transformer case is needed in camouflaging a check 



THE SYSTEM 175 

meter on the service of a suspected customer, and a small quan- 
tity of transformer laminations are always of use about a shop 
and should be saved out of the scrap heap. The same is true of 
coils with the insulation burned off, if the wire is not damaged, 
as a quantity of binding wire is needed about any shop or test 
room for connections, etc. 

Linemen's gloves after breakdown on test are useful where 
acids or other corrosive substances are employed, as for instance 
in handling materials in the lye solution in gas-meter shops, pack- 
ing plants, etc. 

The disposition of short lengths of lead-covered cable is always 
a problem. These accumulate with startling rapidity, even when 
every effort is made to utilize the shortest length in stock on each 
new installation. When cable is scrapped it generally pays to 
strip the lead. When flattened out this is useful for packing, 
washers, pipe saddles, etc. AA^hen these are not needed the 
sheath can be melted into solder or pin thimbles. 

Packing material should be conserved in the same manner as 
supplies. Sacks are useful in putting up orders for local line 
crews, and boxes, barrels and crates should be available for 
goods sent to district storerooms. Heav}^ lumber from large 
crates should be saved for pole-hole covers. Barrels are often 
necessary when holes are to be dug in sandy or marshy ground. 

It is advisable to provide a special workbench for the renova- 
tion of discarded line material and to keep at least one store- 
room employee continuousl}" at this work, so that he may become 
expert in decisions upon the utility and proper disposal of the 
various devices retired. In any case the foremen of the plant 
blacksmith, machine and carpenter shops, who ordinarih^ do not 
come into close contact with the line department, should be made 
familiar with overstock and obsolete materials, such as braces, 
bolts and lag screws. A knowledge on the part of these men of 
what is available will frequently save time and expense b}^ per- 
mitting the substitution of second-hand line hardware for new 
stock in various routine repair and construction jobs. 

GROUND PLATE PLACED UNDERNEATH LINE POLE 

To eliminate the necessity of digging an additional pole for 
ground plates, the Binghamton (N. Y.) Light, Heat & Power 



176 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



Company has adopted a standard method of placing the plate 
underneath the pole. When the pole line is constructed the hole 
is dug slightly deeper than necessary and a copper ground plate 
22 in. (56 cm.) by 16 in. (40 cm.) is dropped into it. A copper 
wire wound spirally is soldered to the plate and connected to the 
neutral of the line. This method eliminates the digging of an 
additional hole at least 6 ft. (1.8 m.) deep and provides a perma- 
nent ground for the pole as well as the line. For about 8 ft. 
(2.4 m.) above the ground the wire is protected by a wooden 
molding, which helps to prevent the wire from being broken by 
teams or boys. 



EASILY MADE CONCRETE GUY ANCHOR 



There is shown in detail in Fig. 52 a concrete guy anchor 
used by the Winsted (Conn.) Gas Company which is proving 



© 




^^ V/ /?<?«' 



Concrete pored ■^■•\ 
even wrffi Top of \ 
Pipe Support 




X ^Woocf Strip /"Thick 
4"Wiefe,/0"/on(^^fO 
support Pipe in 
Center of Cone 




Wooci 
5crew 



Arc 
Lcraip Shcf<ple 



19" -\ — H„ 

/. Part Cement 2"^ "^ ^'^''-^/i ^^^^ '"'^'^ 

2. " Sand Wersher 

3. " fineTrapRock 

Fig. 52 — Details of Concrete Anchor and Sheet-Iron Mold 

satisfactory, states M. N. Longbothum. The anchor is made of 
concrete mixed in proportions of one part cement, two parts sand 
and three parts crushed stone that pass a %-in. (19-mm.) mesh 
screen. The anchors weigh about 100 lb. (45.4 kg.) each. About 
three pails of concrete are used to fill the sheet-iron forms, which 



THE SYSTEM 



177 



were made from old are-lamp hoods. The anchor is cone-shaped, 
19 in. (48.3 cm.) over the base or largest diameter, with a 1-iu 
(2.54-cm.) hole through the center for the insertion of a %-in. or 
%-in. (1.6 cm. or 1.9 -cm.) guy rod. 

MORE TRANSFORMER SPACE ON DISTRIBUTION POLE 

As loads on distribution lines increase, transformers that were 
considered sufficiently large at first often turn out to be far 
short of present requirements. If transformers of larger size are 
required, it may happen that there is not room on the pole be- 



ft r^ 





Figs. 54 and 55 — Present Method of Hanging Transformers and 
Proposed Method of Bracing Cross-Arms 

tween the cross-arm and the brace. In order to eliminate this 
difficulty, a company in the Middle West is considering the advis- 
ability of changing its standard, which is shown in Fig. 54, to 
that shown in Fig. 55. 

As may be observed, the proposed change consists of eliminat- 
ing the arm brace under the cross-arms and installing a lighter 
brace above the arms. Of course, if the former clearance is to 
be maintained longer poles must be used, but it is thought by 
the company that the cost will not be increased because the pole 
top will not have to be as large as formerly. Besides, the size of 
the pole at the gains will be the same. Furthermore, the brace 
can be made from smaller stock because it will be intension in- 
stead of compression. 

The result will probably be that the first cost will be lowered. 



1?8 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



although this is not the main consideration. One feature is that 
it will be easier to hoist transformers on the poles on account of 
the increased height of the pole. Transformers as large as 100- 
kw. rating can be installed on these poles, whereas with the old 
construction the extreme maximum is 50 kw. 

EXTENSION TO POLE TOP PROVIDES FOR EXTRA ARM 

Having a pole already well filled with cross-arms and requiring 
six additional transmission conductors to parallel this line, an ex- 
tra cross-arm was attached to the pole as shown in Fig. 56. 



EXT PA 
CK>OSS Af?M 




JRON STRIPS 



Fig. 5G — Extra Cross-Arm on Pole-Top Extension 

Flat iron strips 3 in. by 0.5 in. (7.6 cm. by 1.3 cm.) were at- 
tached to the pole near the top and bent at right angles at a suit- 
able distance above the pole top. The extra -cross-arm providing 
for six insulators was attached to these iron strips by means of 
lag screws. This scheme gave additional height to the pole and 
eliminated the necessity of another pole line. It has given satis- 
factory^ service, writes Frank Huskinson, on a transmission line 
one mile in lenorth. 



INEXPENSIVE OVERHEAD LINE CROSSING AT 

RAILROAD 

Two three-phase transmission circuits of the Fort Smith 
(Ark.) Light & Traction Company have been strung across a 
railroad right-of-way on supports attached to an overhead bridge. 



THE SYSTEM 179 

This type of construction was chosen in order to avoid the use 
of extra-high poles and to make a permanent job. The arrange- 
ment, as worked out, proved inexpensive. 

At each end of the main bridge span tubular steel trolley 
poles were attached to upright members of the steel bridge by 
means of three large U-bolts. These steel poles were also braced 
at the top by gu}^ wires and by an angle-iron framework which 
supported the trolley wire over the track. The fact that the 
high-tension circuits ran parallel to the track on one side of the 
railroad and at right angles to it on the other made different 
types of construction necessary at each support. 

On one side strain insulators and short ''pull-off" wires 
served to support the wires at this right-angle turn and to give 
ample clearance between the circuits and the steel bridge span. 
On the other side of the bridge seven strain insulators hung in 
a continuous string are supported between angle-iron mast arms 
attached to the trolley pole. The high-tension wires are then 
supported at the points between the strings of insulators. 

THE OUTDOOR SUBSTATION 

On account of the rapidity with which most of the materials 
covered by war contracts had to be delivered, industrial com- 
panies found that the building of isolated plants was out of the 
(luestion, not only because of the time necessary for erection, but 
because of the low rates and excellent service furnished by utility 
companies. As a result central-station companies had to make 
numerous extensions to their plants to take care of the demands 
imposed upon them by the war industries. The difficult}^ of ob- 
taining material on short-time delivery, the speed with which the 
installations had to be made, and the need of conserving funds, 
all made it imperative that all central-station equipment be util- 
ized to the best advantage. With this idea in mind, many cen- 
tral-station companies adopted the practice of providing outdoor 
substations for serving the various war industries which were de- 
pending upon them for power. 

The development of electrical apparatus and equipment has 
been such in recent years that it need no longer be operated 
indoors. The use of outdoor substations, therefore, according to 
E. B. Meyer, Assistant to Chief Eng^ineer, Public Service Electric 



180 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

Company of New Jersey, was one of the means of hastening the 
end of the war in that it was no longer necessary to provide costly 
fireproof structures for the housing of electrical equipment. 
Outdoor installations can be made at a greatly reduced cost and 
the saving in both labor and material is therefore an item which 
should not be overlooked. 

For small outputs and comparatively low voltages the trans- 
formers are usually hung from a substantial pole directly un- 
derneath the transmission line itself, the switching equipment 
being mounted on cross-arms between the line and the trans- 
former, and the transmission line carried on top of the pole. 
Transformers of larger output or higher voltages are mounted on 
platforms, sometimes they are arranged on steel towers and at 
other times on wooden structures supported between two or more 
poles, while the switching equipment is usually carried immedi- 
ately above the transformer. For the largest outdoor substa- 
tions the transformers are mounted on guarded concrete plat- 
forms, while all of the switching equipment and transmission 
lines are carried on steel towers of strong construction. 

Substations of the portable type, with the apparatus mounted 
on wagons, floats or railway cars, are particularly adapted for 
breakdown auxiliary service, temporary peak loads, construction 
work or any of the other numerous war-time demands made upon 
the central-station companies. 

It was originally supposed that the outdoor station created a 
greater hazard to the public than one in which all the equipment 
is housed, but this fear is groundless since with the property in- 
closed by a substantial fence the danger to the public is elim- 
inated. With the outdoor substation there should always be less 
danger from fire, provided proper precautions are taken against 
the accumulation of inflammable material on the property. 

Requirements of an Outdoor Station. In the design of an 
outdoor substation it is desirable that the installation be as neat 
and compact as possible. Usually elaborate switching equipment 
is not necessary to provide immunity from interruption as in 
most cases interruptions are so infrequent that the cost of pro- 
viding duplicate and expensive equipment is not warranted. 
The outdoor installation, as well as all other forms of high-tension 
installations, should be so arranged as to make the operation as 



THE SYSTEM 181 

simple as possible and at the same time provide ample protection 
to the operators and repair crews. 

In a number of outdoor substations steel structures are used 
for mounting the buses, disconnecting switches and other equip- 
ment. The difficult}' at this time of obtaining delivery on struc- 
tural steel and the advisability of conserving this material for 
shipbuilding and other important war needs has made it neces- 
sary to look about for some other type of construction. Heavy 
wood poles and timber construction may be used to good ad- 
vantage and at the same time reduce the cost considerably. 

Storage of Oil During Transformer Repair. In installations 
where large capacity oil and water-cooled transformers are used 
it is sometimes necessary to provide a tank for storing the oil from 
transformers under repair. Oil tanks are usually built of boiler 
plate, but as this class of material is one of those on the list 
which must be conserved for war purposes, it is necessary to pro- 
vide some other form of construction as a substitute. One large 
central-station company where a number of high-capacity oil and 
water-cooled transformers are used has experimented with a con- 
crete tank for oil storage. In the particular installation in ques- 
tion a concrete tank 13 ft. by 6 ft. by 6 ft (4 m. by 1.8 m. by 1.8 
m.) was built adjacent to the outdoor installations and so 
arranged that the oil can be drained from the transformers 
directly into the tank. The tank is built with a mixture of one 
part cement, two parts sand and four parts broken stone and 
reinforced rods to make a structure of sufficient strength to with- 
stand the oil pressure. The interior of the tank is plastered with 
a waterproof compound, over which are applied several coatings 
of silicate of soda. An airtight cover is provided on the top of 
the tank and the necessary provisions are made to allow pump- 
ing the oil back into the transformers when repairs have been 
completed. It is not expected that the oil will have to remain 
in the concrete tank for any great length of time so that the 
leakage, if there is any, will be practically negligible. The mat- 
ter of providing proper housing for repairs and storage of oil 
may at first seem to be somewhat of a refinement ; it nevertheless 
is important in large installations if it is desired to keep the cost 
of repairs at a minimum and at the same time avoid delays in 
placing equipment back into service. In many instances lack of 



182 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

attention to the matter of repair facilities has resulted in delays, 
with a consequent loss in revenue to the central-station company. 
It must not be inferred, however, that making repairs consti- 
tutes a serious difficulty, as with reliable apparatus and proper 
accessibility it is often easier to make repairs outdoors than 
indoors, where lack of room sometimes handicaps the repair men. 

Cooling Transformers. Adequate cooling may be provided 
for transformers by three different methods : (1) Cooling tower ; 
(2) spray pond; (3) deep-well pumping outfit. The objection to 
the spray pond is the amount of room required for this type of 
installation, as in order to obtain sufficient spraying surface an 
area 50 ft. by 50 ft. (15.2 m, by 15.2 m.) is required for even a 
moderate-sized installation. A cooling tower may be of two 
types, one commonly called the forced-draft cooling tower and 
the other the atmospheric cooling tower. 

What might appear to be an objection to both the spray pond 
and cooling towers is the fact that in the hottest months when the 
greatest amount of cooling is needed the relative humidity is also 
greatest, consequently the theoretical dew point is raised so high 
that it becomes a rather difficult matter to bring the circulating 
water temperature down to the required value. In one installa- 
tion, in order to overcome this difficulty a deep well was driven, 
and the water supply obtained from this well was practically con- 
stant all the year at a temperature of 52 deg. Fahr. (11.2 deg. C). 
To dispose of the water a second deep well was driven and the 
circulating water pumped back into it and allowed to seep into 
the ground through the various earth strata. 

The following figures were used in calculating temperature 
range for a cooling tower on the Atlantic seaboard : 

Mean July temperature (deg. Fahr.) 73.0 

Mean July wet bulb (deg. Fahr. ) 67 

Mean July humidity (per cent) 71 

Assuming water leaving the transformer coils at 100 deg. 
Fahr. (37.8 deg. C), the temperature of water leaving the 
tower is obtained by substituting in the formula T^ = (T -j- 2fi 
+ 0-^4. 

t = temperature of atmosphere 
^1 = temperature of wet-bulb 



THE SYSTEM 183 

T = temperature of water on tower 
1\ = temperature of water oft* tower 
T,= (90 + 134 + 73.5) -^4 
T^ = 74.4 deg. Fahr. 

During winter weather considerable trouble may be experi- 
enced due to freezing of the water in the pans, but by installing 
a by-pass valve and piping so as to utilize only the bottom tray 
the freezing is eliminated. 

In conclusion it may be said that the modern up-to-date out- 
door substation has come to stay and its evolution has gone stead- 
ily forward. The outdoor equipment is well adapted for furnish- 
ing both the small rural load and the more important industrial 
centers. It is far more simple than the indoor type and more 
space may be occupied with less money expenditure both in 
structures and equipment, with the resultant advantage that no 
needless expenditure has been made on useless inclosures and bar- 
riers. 

The problem of cooling the equipment has been solved in both 
the small and large size installations so that it is no longer neces- 
sary to provide expensive housing for large capacity trans- 
formers. 

High-tension insulators, terminals and switches have been de- 
veloped to such an extent that they may be as safely operated 
outdoors as when installed under cover, free from the action of 
the elements. 

The development of the outdoor substation has been one of the 
most important factors in the interconnection of high-tension 
electrical systems and by its means considerable fuel saving may 
be accomplished in that the most economical generating units may 
be employed for long-hour use for serving the transmission lines 
through outdoor substations feeding concentrated industrial cen- 
ters. 

In the days of conservation of labor and building material, 
the outdoor substation was a step in the right direction as its con- 
struction not only released the experienced labor employed in 
building construction but also released cars and barges which 
were used to better advantage in the transporting of coal and 
other materials which were of vital importance in hastening the 
victory of the Allies. 



184 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

OUTDOOR SUBSTATIONS SIMPLE AND ECONOMICAL 

The outdoor substation, according to R. E. Cunningham, Super- 
intendent of Distribution, Southern California Edison Company, 
has proved to be the simplest and most economical means of serv- 
ing large consumers, and the favorable climate of southern Cali- 
fornia makes its operation entirely reliable. 

Manufacturers have produced outdoor-type transformers 
which are entirely satisfactory for all moderate voltages. It has 
therefore only been left to the operating engineer to select switch- 
ing and protective apparatus and properly arrange the equip- 
ment. Most distribution ouidoor substations have been equipped 
with fused-type switches. The experience of this company with 
such switches has shown that they are not entirely reliable on 
account of the inherent weaknesses of high-potential fuses. Par- 
ticularly on three-phase service is trouble had with one fuse fail- 
ing, allowing the motors to operate single-phase and in many 
cases resulting in burn-out of the consumer's equipment. 

In order to overcome this condition, a local manufacturer has 
made for the company an automatic outdoor pole-top switch for 
service on 10,000 volts. The company has more than 200 of these 
switches now in use, all of them having given satisfactory service. 
This is a single-tank switch, equipped with three series overload 
trip coils, so that an overload on any wire of a three-phase circuit 
will entirely disconnect the service. The switch is controlled b}^ 
pull cables from the ground, and the consumer can immediately 
restore the service in case the switch has been kicked out by 
momentary overload. This saves the consumer a long interrup- 
tion which would otherwise exist, with the use of fuse switches, 
since the company would have to send out a troubleman to replace 
the burned-out fuses. 

When extra heavy loads are to be started or fluctuating condi- 
tions are encountered, a simple time-limit device can be attached 
to the plunger of each overload relay, which prevents the switch 
kicking out except in cases of actual trouble or continued over- 
loads. This switch also allows the consumer to disconnect his 
transformers when they are not in actual use, saving to the 
power company the energy lost in exciting the transformers 
and removing all hazard of energized wires on the consumer's 
property. With a switch of this type on the primary side of 



THE SYSTEM 185 

the transformers installed within 30 ft. (9 m.) of the entrance 
to the propert}', the local authorities have ruled that the main 
entrance switch on the secondaries is not required. 

MODERATE OUTDOOR SUBSTATION 

The San Joaquin Light & Power Corporation of Fresno, Cal., 
has an outdoor substation near Madera, in the same State, which 
may be of interest because of its construction and moderate cost, 
writes L. J. ]\Ioore, Engineer San Joaquin Light & Power Cor- 
poration. Suspension construction on wooden poles is emploj^ed 
throughout. The San Joaquin corporation has always been par- 
tial to wood poles, owing to its proximity to the Oregon and 
Washington supply of timber. A quite extensive open-tank creo- 
soting plant is maintained in Fresno for the treatment of poles 
which are used on the system. The present high cost of steel 
was also a factor in determining the use of poles for this sub- 
station. Other substations which have been erected by this cor- 
poration have usually been constructed with pin-type insulators 
on wood poles. All future installations are to be made with 
suspension insulators, thus making it possible to increase the 
amount of insulation installed and to secure better mechanical 
construction than is possible on pin-type insulators. Except for 
the metering equipment and low-tension oil switches all the equip- 
ment in the Madera substation was placed out of doors. 

The substation is connected to a 66,000-volt line which forms a 
loop through a number of other substations. The transforma- 
tion ratio is from 66,000 volts to 11,000 volts through a Y-Y bank 
of transformers with both high-tension and low-tension neutrals 
grounded. An oil switch and an air-break switch are installed 
in the incoming and outgoing 66,000-volt lines where they con- 
nect with the 66,000-volt bus which loops around the substation 
site. A spacing of 7 ft. (2.1 m.) has been used between high- 
voltage wires where possible to lessen the occurrence of arcs or 
trouble caused by large birds flying between the wires. The trans- 
former bank is connected with the 66,000-volt bus through an 
air-break switch and an oil switch. Provision is made for seven 
11,000-volt feeders, two of which are carried on the transmission- 
line poles. All 66,000-volt air-break switches used in the sta- 
tion are five-disk K-P-F switches, chosen because their construe- 



186 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



tion especially fits them for use in this type of substation. A 
grounding switch is installed on each end of the 66,000-volt lines 
in order to ground either section of the line in case men have to 
work upon the line between this station and either one of the two 
stations adjacent to it. The two grounding switches are mounted 



eeKV. - iiKv 



'—Si- 



■Tiv> 



SWITCH 1$) ^'^ISl 



OiL -> 
5WnCH 



66KV. 



at SWITCH 



\ 



L.J'. 



P(MTR 
TRANSFORMER 



'^\-:-^ 



f^ 



■^Sh- 



POTENTIAL 
TRANSfDRMER 



<§) 



^CURRENT 



\ \ TRANSfORMER 1 \ 

T M * T — r — r— i ^ 



-7 — r 

" ^ "^ "l "^ 



eexv 



"•LINES OF 

Buiiam 



OUTDOOR II KV. 
SWITCH RACK 



IIKV. UNES 

Fig. 57 — Electrical Wiring Layout of Modern Outdoor Substation 

Showing Connections 



on 66,000-volt pin-type insulators, which are the only high-ten- 
sion pin-insulators in the installation. 

The transformer bus is supported on 25-ft. (7.6-m.) poles and 
is long enough to accommodate two banks of three 500-kva. trans- 
formers, together with one spare and the controlling switches for 
both of the transformer banks. The 66,000-volt buses are on the 
arms across the tops of the poles, and the 11,000-volt buses are 
supported in a vertical plane on the poles themselves along one 
side of the structure. The buses are dead-ended in the center of 
the structure over the spare transformer so that it may be con- 
nected in place of any transformer in either bank which might 
become disabled. This location was chosen for the spare unit in 
order to minimize delay and work in connecting it into service. 

In the center of the outdoor substation site is a corrugated 
iron-covered wood-frame building which houses the metering 
equipment and the 11,000-volt oil switches. All the equipment 
in the building could and would have been purchased for outdoor 
installation had it not been for the fact that this type of building 
adds no more expense than the difference in cost of outdoor and 
indoor type switches and metering equipment. Also, it was 
thought desirable to provide a building so that the operator would 
be near the indicating instruments and the automatic feeder 



THE SYSTEM 



187 



switches. If no building were provided, he would in all proba- 
bility spend most of his time in his home, especially in bad 
weather, when line trouble would be most likely to occur. 

The electrical equipment in the building consists of an 11,000- 
volt bus to which leads from the 11,000-volt side of the station 
transformers connect through a 300-amp., 15,000-volt General 
Electric K-12 oil switch and disconnecting switches. Similar 
equipment is installed on each of the seven feeders which tap off 
from the 11,000-volt bus. The switches and buses are mounted 
on pipe framework throughout. The feeder switches are auto- 




<MRBREMSW!TCH 




POTENTIAL 
TRANSFORMER 



u g. g ly rg 



■ TRANSFORM EJfS 



J 1 I 



AIR BREAK 
SWITCH 



STRAIH 
INSULATORS 

ii 





Fig. 58 — Arrangement of Outdoor Substation Equip- 
ment AT Madera, Cal. 

matic, but the switch on the transformer leads is not automatic. 
The metering equipment installed consists of three single-phase 
watt-hour meters, three ammeters, one Bristol recording volt- 
meter with a seven-day chart, and an indicating volt-meter which 
may be connected through a potential receptable to any one of 
the three phases. This equipment is connected to current and 
potential transformers on the 11,000-volt transformer leads and 
measures the output of the transformers to the station bus. No 
metering equipment is installed on the individual feeders. Cur- 
rent transformers, however, are provided in each feeder for trip- 
ping the K-12 switches on overload or short circuit. Potential 
transformers for the metering equipment are installed on a pole 



188 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

outside the building, the secondary leads being brought into the 
building through conduit. This potential bank consists of three 
1-kw., 6600-volt pole-line transformers which are connected in 
star for 11,000 volts with the neutral grounded. An 11,000-volt, 
2^/^-kw. pole-line transformer is installed in the same manner to 
supply lights for the station building and grounds. 

A very convenient 11,000-volt switch rack and paralleling bus 
has been provided outside the building, and all 11,000-volt feed- 
ers pass through this rack to the out-going lines. A No. 1417 
Pacific Electric & Manufacturing Company air-break switch has 
been installed on each outgoing feeder as a line "disconnect" to 
permit work on the oil switch inside the building. Each feeder 
taps outside this air-break switch through a second air-break 
switch to the paralleling bus, thus making it possible to attach 
any number of feeders to a single oil switch inside the building 
while repairs or adjustments are being made on the switches 
which are ordinarily connected with them. The long California 
summer causes all equipment to become very dusty if it is not 
cleaned often, so arrangements for taking apparatus out of serv- 
ice without interruption to it are very necessary in order to keep 
the equipment clean enough to operate satisfactorily and with- 
out danger of insulator flash-over due to the heavy coating of 
dust. 

The substation site covers two acres, thus giving ample room 
for the necessary electrical equipment and the cottage for the 
operator. Only one operator is employed, because very little 
switching is necessary, and all of the automatic switches are pro- 
vided with alarms so that in case one of them trips the operator 
is made aware of it. A 7-ft. (2.1 m.) woven-wire fence incloses 
the entire property, and a similar fence is installed around each 
of the 66,000-volt oil switches and any other equipment which 
might cause injury to any one coming in contact with it. The 
posts in the fence and the poles in the yard are painted a dark 
green. All cross-arms are painted yellow in accordance with a 
California state law. 

The substation is provided with a private telephone connected 
with the corporation 's private line, which is carried on the trans- 
mission line poles. Means for opening the telephone line and 
testing for trouble on it are provided. Connection to the ope- 



THE SYSTEM 189 

rator's cottage is made both from the private line and from the 
Bell system. 

At the time of writing: this article the details of the cost had 
not been compiled in full, but as far as it is possible to determine 
from the data on hand the cost of the substation complete, includ- 
ing operator's cottage, well, fences and all details, was estimated 
to be in the neighborhood of $15 per kilowatt of ultimate 
capacity. 

INCREASING TRANSFORMER CAPACITY BY CIRCU- 
LATING OIL 

When the main substation at Lincoln Park, Chicago, was built 
all multiple-circuit power was supplied by a bank of three 150- 
kva., 12,000/2300 volt, 60-cycle, single-phase, oil-filled, self- 
cooled, station-type transformers connected delta on the primary 
side and star on the secondary. These units were installed in an 
angle of the bus chamber as shown in the accompanjdng sketch. 
One spare transformer was provided but never used. Later a 
200-kva., 12,000/2300-4000-volt, three-phase, oil-filled, self-cooled, 
station-type transformer was installed in the location shown and 
connected by means of double-throw disconnecting switches so it 
could be used in place of the 450-kva. bank. When this reserve 
equipment was put into service it was found that owing to the 
temperature of the bus chamber, which contains more than forty 
transformers, all of which are operated at night, the three-phase 
equipment became so hot as to be unsafe. The oil often attained 
a temperature of 75 deg. C. 

To remedy this condition, writes Claude H. Sheperd, Electri- 
cal Engineer for the Lincoln Park Commissioners, a ventilating 
system was installed and operated in such a way as to change the 
air about once in five minutes. This helped but did not eliminate 
the excessive heating of the transformers, and it was feared that 
the interior layers of insulation were beginning to carbonize. 
Sludge was rapidly forming in the oil so it was feared that unless 
drastic steps were taken immediately some of the three-phase 
equipment might be lost as the heat was actually unbearable in 
the immediate vicinity of either the three-phase bank or the sin- 
gle-phase transformer, the room temperature often attaining 140 
deg. Fahr. (60 deg. C). 



190 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

Consequently oil-cooling apparatus was purchased and in- 
stalled, practically no interruption of service being experienced, 
although the work was done under the most adverse conditions 
and in close proximity to both the 4000-volt and 12,000-volt 
buses. 

By reference to the drawing it will be seen that the trans- 
former oil is drawn by a direct-connected centrifugal pump 
directly from the transformer cases into an accumulator or set- 
tling tank and thence into the pump, which discharges full vol- 
ume into and through the cooling coils, the latter being immersed 
in constantly circulating water. From there the oil is discharged 
through a submerged outlet into the transformer. Two differ- 
ent suction systems were used. For the three-phase transformer 



1 

Ti 
A 

8- 


rABL 

ime, 
.M. 
00 
30 
;00 
;30 

;00 
;10 
:20 
;30 

:40 
:50 
:00 
:10 

:20 
:30 
:40 
:50 
m. 


E I — Heat Test 

Temperature of 

Transformer, 

De^.C 

23 

28: 
26 
26 

26 
36 
37 
37 

37 
36 
35 
35 

35 
34 
34 
34 
33 


ON 200- 

Kw. 
140 
150 
150 
160 

175 
175 

175 
175 

175 
175 
175 
175 

175 
175 
175 
175 
170 


KW. Transforme 
Pump On 


R Made Sept. 11, 

Coolin< 
Temp 
Pump Off Deg 
8:00 a.m. 

12:00 m. 


1917 

^-Water 
erature, 
. Fahr. 

48 


8- 






48 


0- 






48 


f)- 






48 


10' 






48 


10; 
10 


10:10i 


a.m. 


48 
48 


10 






48 


10 






48 


10 






48 


11 






48 


11 






48 


11 






48 


11 






48 


11 






48 


11 






48 


12 






4S 



the oil suction was taken through an already established connec- 
tion at the bottom of the case, thus allowing automatic priming of 
the pump. In the case, however, of the three 150-kva., single- 
phase units it was found advisable to take the oil from the hot- 
test part of the case, which was at the top next to the wall, the 
individual suctions being brought forward through the ther- 
mometer wells to regulator valves discharging into the main sue- 



THE SYSTEM 



191 



tion pipe or line. The discharge in each case was submerged and 
additional safety was assured by the use of fiber discharge noz- 
zles. 

It will be noted from Fig. 59 that section valves are placed 
in the two main suction lines and that individual regulator valves 
have been placed in each individual suction and discharge line, 
and that a pump throttle was also installed, giving absolute con- 



Bank Cff Sitigit those Tramformers, 



SfftaseTranst 



Fig. 59 — Layout of Pipixg Used 
IN Circulating Oil in Tw^o 




Transformers to nakrkXLZf^ 



Get Increased Rating Out of "Lffrr^^i! r /u^^ 

HahrMetntarTop' %r Bleeder Ouflt^ 

THE Transformers 



of Tank 



and Voire 



trol of the oil flow and allowing perfect adjustment under all 
conditions. A separate make-up funnel and valve were con- 
nected to the accumulator tank, and a T-connection and valve 
were placed in the discharge line, allowing oil to be either added 
to or taken away from the system at any time. With this ar- 
rangement it is obvious that the four transformer cases with oil 
at the proper level act as a reservoir system for each other, allow- 
ing levels to be adjusted or oil to be completely shifted from one 
case to another at any time. This plan gives assurance of great 
flexibility. 

A thermometer is installed in the individual suction for each 
transformer and at the suction and discharge of the cooling coils, 
giving complete data on the temperatures. An oil gage is in- 
stalled on each transformer to show the oil level and an air- 
bleeder valve is installed on the accumulator tank. The cooling 
water is supplied by the city system and is piped into the bottom 
of the coil tank. The overflow is installed near the top of the 
tank at such a level as to keep the coils always submerged. The 



192 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

supply connection is made through a T at the bottom of the tank, 
the continuation of the supply line being connected through a 
stopcock into the overflow line. Hence by closing the supply 

Table II — Cost of Oil-Cooling Installation 

LABOR 

Machinist, 79 hours at 55 cents $43.45 

Steamfitter, 92 hours at 48 cents 44.16 

Helper, 79 hours at 38 and 40 cents 30.50 

Class A electrician, 99 hours at 75 cents 74.25 

$192.36 

Engineering and overhead 99.70 

MATERIAL 

Fittings $8.59 

One 14-in. by 30-in. galvanized-iron expansion tank 9.38 

One 18-in. by 45-in. galvanized-iron tank with cooling coils 71.50 

162 ft. 2-in. black pipe at 39 cents 6.42 

Six 0-110 deg. C. thermometers 57.38 

One %-in. by 6-in. water glass .10 

Miscellaneous screws, bolts, etc 9.31 

Electrical conduit fittings 17.91 

Piping and fittings for water supply 55.79 

Transil oil 80 

24-ft. No. 8 fine stranded wire .10 

One oil pump driven by 1700-r.p.m., three-phase, 3-hp., 

220-volt, 60-cycle motor, 50 g.p.m., 30-ft. head 165.00 

Four transformer oil gages 6.28 

408.55 



Grand total $700.61 

valve and opening the stopcock the tank may be quickly drained, 
a special air-bleeder line being provided to facilitate this opera- 
tion. Three-phase energy is supplied to the pump motor from 
220-volt taps on the secondary side of the main transformers. 
As the system is self-priming, no attention is paid to the pump 
during a shutdown as it will automatically come into operation 
again when the power supply is re-established. 

For about six weeks during last summer the 200-kva., three- 
phase transformer carried in actual operation a maximum day 
load of 325 kw. for about five hours per day with a maximum oil 
temperature of 41 deg. C. (105.8 deg. Fahr.), and a cooling water 
temperature of 44 deg. Fahr. (6.7 deg. C). The cooling system, 
it is apparent, has increased the capacity of the 200-kva. trans- 
former over 60 per cent. As this has been the maximum multiple 
circuit load so far, the 200-kva. transformer should have ample 



THE SYSTEM 193 

capacity when operated with the cooling system to "pull" the 
entire multiple-circuit load. In fact, since the installation 
of the cooling system it has never been necessary to operate 
the 450-kva. bank. Assuming the same relative percentage 
of core losses on both the 450-kva. bank and the 200-kva. trans- 
formers and allowing for the 1 kw. necessary to operate the 
cooling system, it is estimated that a net energy saving of $0.72 
per day is obtained with the cooling system in operation, energy 
costing 0.0075 cent per kilowatt-hour. Assuming a percentage 
increase in the capacity of the 450-kva. bank on the basis of 60 
per cent, it will be possible to pull a load of 720 kw. on this bank. 
The only doubtful point is whether or not the interior layers of 
insulation are beginning to carbonize. This question will be 
investigated during the winter, but judging from the quality of 
oil now in the transformers no damage from this cause has ap- 
peared so far. 

The test data in Table I show that in spite of the fact that the 
load was increased when the pump was started and remained at 
175 kw. all night, the temperature of the circulating oil was 
steadily reduced from 37 deg. C. to 34 deg. C. 

It will be noted that the temperature jumped from 26 deg. C. 
to 36 deg. C. when the pump was started, but this is due to the 
thermometer being in the suction riser. It indicates the riser 
temperature until the pump is started, thereafter the case tem- 
perature. 

One change is necessary before the efficiency of the cooling 
system will be considered entirely satisfactory, and that is to 
substitute copper coils for iron pipe. The latter was used in 
place of copper because of the high initial cost of the copper. 
However, it has been found that for each passage of the oil 
through the cooler the temperature drop is from 2 deg. C. to 5 
deg. C, whereas with copper coils it is expected that the tempera- 
ture drop will be much greater. It is estimated that the invest- 
ment in the present oil-cooling equipment earns about 37.3 per 
cent annually. 

REMOTE CONTROL OF SUBSTATIONS SAVES 

MANPOWER 

W. T. Snyder, electrical engineer for the National Tube Com- 
pany, McKeesport, Pa., pointed to a year of successful operation 



194 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



of a remote-controlled substation, at the annual convention of the 
Association of Iron and Steel Electrical Engineers, in a paper 
entitled ''Remote-Controlled Substations." 

Mr. Snyder made the statement that push-button control of oil 
switches and motor-operated rheostats permit the ' generating 
plant attendant to control the motor-generator sets in the sub- 
station which is locked up and unattended except for the daily 
inspection. Ammeters and voltmeters at the generating plant 
give the operator there all the information necessary for starting 
and loading the substation. Mr. Snyder states that the remote- 
control feature added about 10 per cent to the cost of the sub- 
station. This increase in fixed charges should be readily wiped 
out by saving in operating expense, in addition to conserving 
labor for other purposes. A great saving in copper was effected 
in the direct-current system by locating the substation near the 
load center. 



ARRANGEMENT THAT SERVES PURPOSE OF 

DOUBLE BUS 

In building the Antioch substation of the Great Western Power 
Company it was decided that the cost of a double busbar system 



"-E3- 



100 KV 



Building 



■E3- 



T 



T 



'-E3- 



I 



k 100 KV. -A 

/WyV\A SN\N\/\ 

k SZffY • >J 



HI6H TENSION 



WWW 



\% ^ (5 



Builciing' 



'■E3-- 



AA/WNAA 
\AA/WW 



ZEIfV 



i \ 



51 [^ [|] 



.U- 












Auxiliaiy 
Bus 

low tension 
Fig. 60 — Single-bus System in Substation that Answers the JPurpose 

OF Double-bus Arrangement 



THE SYSTEM 195 

was not warranted solely by the flexibility it would afford. As 
an alternative plan a single-bus SA'stem was installed embodying 
an arrangement of cut-out switches that would permit obtaining 
about the same results as when a double-bus system was used. 

The accompanying diagram (Fig. 60) shows the principle used, 
which provides for the isolation of practically every piece of 
apparatus in the station without interrupting the service. It is 
estimated that a saving of about $8,000 resulted from the use of 
the arrangement which is here described. 



SECTION III 
THE SHOP 

SHOP VERSUS FIELD TESTING OF NEW WATT-HOUR 

METERS 

Many central stations, according to George W. Hewitt, meter 
foreman of the Minneapolis General Electric Company, are ac- 
tually wasting time and money testing new meters just received 
from the factory. Virtually all factories ship meters which are 
guaranteed to be accurate within 2 per cent. Testing the meters 
in the shop, carting them around all day in a vehicle, often in- 
stalling them wrongly and not testing again for a year or so 
induces much "lost motion." "A shop test as compared with a 
service test, especially on direct-current meters, is not worth the 
money expended on it," says Mr. Hewitt. 

In his opinion, the only test worth consideration is that made 
under actual service conditions. When the commutator of a 
direct-current meter, for instance, is polished and the meter 
adjusted it will be found that aging due to the oxidation of the 
silver commutator affects the meter and that a test made from 
thirty to sixty days after installation will show different results 
from a shop test or that made at the date of installation. Then, 
again, local and earth magnetic fields affect meters to a large 
extent, depending on the position of the meter. Errors of 5 to 
10 per cent sometimes result from this cause. 

The Minneapolis General Electric Company meter department 
does 90 per cent of its testing in service, holding its shop testing 
to a minimum. Meters which are repaired in the shop are ad- 
justed, within 2 per cent of complete accuracy, and new meters 
are not tested at all. They are thoroughly inspected and then 
tested within thirty days after the installation and adjusted to 
within 0.5 per cent of accuracy. The fact that 95.7 per cent of 
the installations tested are within the legal limit of 2.5 per cent 
accuracy seems to bear out the contention that this method of 
testing is satisfactory. According to the records, only eighteen 

196 



THE SHOP 197 

meters out of 4309 recently installed failed to register. This 
plan of testing meters after installation has the further advantage 
of being a check on the men who install the meters. 

ECONOMICAL PRACTICES WITH METER JEWELS 

Realizing that diamond meter jewels must be kept in service 
to justify their high first cost, the Minneapolis General Electric 
Company places these jewels in each instrument when the instal- 
lation test is made but replaces them w^ith sapphire when the serv- 
ice is disconnected. Thus money invested in expensive jewels is 
not allowed to become idle when meters are placed in stock. The 
diamond jewels are considered more economical when they can 
be kept in service because they will withstand 40,000,000 revolu- 
tions without showing appreciable wear, whereas sapphire will 
withstand only 700,000 revolutions before wearing out. 

The extent to which the jewels are lubricated has also been 
found to affect their wearing qualities and the friction consid- 
erably. According to a test w4th jewels operating under three 
conditions — flooded with oil, with only a trace of oil, and dry — 
the jewel flooded with oil gives the best results and the dry jewel 
gives the worst. 

CUTTING METER TEST LABOR 

The best average record which meter testers of the Crawfords- 
ville (Ind.) Electric Light & Power Compan}^ could make form- 
erly, using the ordinary type of testing apparatus, was thirty-five 
single-phase meters per day. After rearranging all of the appa- 
ratus into a single compact unit the meter tester was able to 
average sixty meters a day for a period of ten days. The single- 
unit set, which is shown in Fig. 61, included the load box and 
calibrator and all of the connections. F. H. Miller, manager of 
the Crawfordsville company, said that considerable time is saved 
by the use of this set because connections do not have to be 
changed frequently, only about one minute being required to 
prepare the outfit for testing. 

Details concerning the construction of the set follow : The out- 
fit complete weighs 30 lb. (13.6 kg.) and measures 15 in. (38.10 
cm.) long by 7.5 in. (19.05 cm.) wide by 10.5 in. (26.67 cm.) 



198 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



high. It consists of a phantom-load box of the type made by the 
Eastern Specialty Company under the Herman & Mills patent, 
a Fort Wayne type M2 calibrator and the necessary connections 
and switches. The load box has a range of 0.25 amp. to 50 amp. 
of non-inductive load. The calibrator has a range of 1 amp. 




.[JhCTP 



hT^ 



=h 



Ph 



Fig. 61 — ^ Wiring Diagram of Combination Load Box and Calibrator 

to 100 amp. There is a 5-amp. light-load and a 5-amp. heavy- 
load adjustment. 

To use the calibrator alone plug No. 1, shown in the lid of the 
outfit, is inserted to connect points B and C on the wiring dia- 
gram. To use the load box and the calibrator together plug No. 
2 is inserted to connect points A and B and C and D. The plugs 
are inserted through the holes marked 1 to 100, which correspond 
to the load desired. Spring switch clips are used for making 
contacts at the points A, B, C and D. 

To conduct a test with this set, binding posts A are first con- 
nected with the service meter, a three-conductor cable composed 
of one potential wire and two current wires being used for all 
load conditions and tests. The potential connection is made at P 
and the calibrator control switch is connected at S. Iron connec- 
tors are used at P and S. By pushing the plug, in the side of the 
pendent switch used with this outfit continuous operation is 



THE SHOP 



199 



permitted. Pushing the end plug', whieli presses against a 
spring, causes the calibrator to assume the zero position. 

REDUCING THE COST OF SOLDERING 

The cost of soldering lugs on cables, leads or armature wind- 
ings, etc., has been reduced as much as 60 per cent by the Iowa 
Railway & Light Company of Cedar Rapids by using an acety- 
lene-gas torch for this work instead of molten metal or soldering 
irons. The gas is purchased in tanks and is conducted to the 
burner used for melting the solder by means of high-pressure 
rubber hose. This method permits workmen to reach locations 
easily which would be almost inaccessible with soldering irons, 
and thus the labor cost involved in the soldering process is re- 
duced to the minimum. * 



SPECIAL SWITCH MADE FOR TESTING WATT-HOUR 

METERS 

A convenient method of testing watt-hour meters is indicated 
in accompanying drawing (Fig. 62), writes R. M. Berry. The 




SOURCZ 



i? 6, 



1 T 



^ 




ih 



n* 



.DOUBLE BUTTON 
PUSH SWITCH 



J^ 



LAMP 
BANK 
LOAD 



o 



va 



Fig. G2 — Special Switch foh Testi^x Watt-Hour Meters 

part of the diagram shown at ABCD represents a specially con- 
structed switch for changing the current coils on the rotating 



200 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

standard without having to remove the wire from one binding' 
post to the other during the period of testing a meter. This 
switch has been found to be quite a time saver and helps to 
eliminate mistakes. 

The operation of the switch is as follows : For testing with the 
20-amp. coil on the rotating standard, adjust the load for 20 
amp., throw switches X and Y toward BD and connect points 
2 to 3 and 4 to 5 respectively, thus completing the circuit through 
the 20-amp. coil. In a like manner, for testing with the 10-amp. 
coil, adjust the load for 10 amp., leave switch Y in position BD 
and throw switch X toward AC, connecting points 1 to 3 and 
4 to 5 and completing the circuit through the 10-amp. coil. In 
testing with the 1-amp. coil switch Y is thrown toward AC, con- 
necting points 6 to 7 and completing the circuit through the 
1-amp. coil. 

The idea of having switch Y of the construction mentioned is 
to avoid blowing the fuse on the 1-amp. coil, as only a definite 
load can be placed on it. When using the other coils the latter 
is entirely disconnected. This switch was constructed out of 
fiber board of ^/^-in. (3-mm.) thickness for the base and standard 
knife-switch parts for the contacts. This switch can be mounted 
in any convenient place for shop testing, or a special cover can be 
made for the rotating standard deep enough to accommodate the 
switch when the cover is closed. 



SECTION IV 

METER READING, BILLING AND BILL 
DELIVERY, AND COLLECTIONS 

CONTINUOUS METER READING 

The llarrisburg (Pa.) Lioht & Power Company has adopted 
the continuous meter-reading system which will apply to all 
electrical consumers and is already in operation. A laro^e 
amount of work was curtailed in the change-over from the old 
ledger system, but from now on it will make the work of the 
cashier and bookkeepers much easier. Another very important 
result of the change will be that it will produce a far better dis- 
tribution of the crowd in the company's sales office and bring 
opportunity for more careful selling methods. 

Under the old system, discount day brought a large run on the 
electric light office and produced so great a crowd that it was 
practically impossible to bring any selling influence to bear. 
From now on, however, there will be a limited number of discount 
takers in the office every day, and it will be possible to discuss the 
matter of appliances wdth them. This, it is felt, is certain to 
produce a large amount of business which otherwise would not be 
developed. 

The Beverh-^ (Mass.) Gas & Electric Company also has 
adopted the continuous system of reading meters and mailing 
bills, the new plan being adopted owing to conditions created by 
the war and the necessity for distributing the work as equally as 
possible for the meter readers and office staff. Under the old 
plan the bills were read between the fifteenth and twentieth of 
each month and were mailed out on the first of the succeeding 
month. 

The city, which has a population of around 20,000, has been 
divided into about twenty-four districts. The gas and electric 
meters in the first district are read on the first working day of 
each month and bills mailed two days later. The meters in the 

201 



202 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



second district are read on the second working day of each month 
and bills mailed two days later, the meters in the third district on 
the third day, and so on. Ten days from the date of mailing bill 
are allowed in which to secure the discount for prompt payment. 
Discount dates are plainly stamped on all bills. 

DELAYED METER-READING POST CARDS 

In order to save the meter readers from the need of making 
return calls, the Consumers' Electric Light & Power Company 
of New Orleans, La., Jias devised a delayed meter-reading post 



DIAL DIAGRAM 

OF 

ELECTRIC METER 



10,000 



1,000 




Kilowatt Hours 



Name 



Address ■ 



Dale- 



You were not at home when our meter- 
reader called and we ask you to kindly mark 
on the above dials the exact position of the 
hands as they appear on the face of your 
meter, and mail this card at once. 

Consumers Electric Light & Power Co. 



Fig. 63 — Meter Reading Post Card Mailed by Customer 



card. If when the meter reader calls he cannot get in, he leaves 
an addressed government post card, on the reverse side of which 
is a dial diagram of the meter on which the customer can mark 
the meter reading, and on which is also a place for the custom- 
er's name and address. The customer mails the card and is 
billed for the amount of energy shown to be used. 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 



203 



This S3'stem was put into effect tliere in January, 1918, and as 
early as May 75 per cent of the cards left were being returned to 
the company with readings indicated. In July General IManager 
W. J. Aicklen stated that through the use of post-card delayed- 
meter readings the company was effecting a saving of approxi- 
mately $50 a month in meter readers' salaries. 

]\Iuch time is lost by the meter reader through customers not 
being at home w^hen he calls. In order to get around this diffi- 
culty the Twin State Gas-Electric Company of Brattleboro, Vt., 




Name._-.. 
Address . 



Will you kindly assist us In obtaining a 
reading of your meter by marking the 
position of the hands on your meter on 
the Illustration and mailing us this card. 

Date of RaadinK _ _ 

Meter Number.»..._ _ _....- 



Fig. 64 — Post-card Meter Record 



asks the customer to read his own meter when the company's 
reader has not been able to do so on his regular calls. 

If the meter reader cannot get in, he slips an addressed post 
card, like the one shown, under the door or puts it in the mail 
box. This delayed-meter-reading card requests the customer to 
mark the position of the hands of the meter on the card and mail 
it to the company. The same consumer is seldom asked to make 
his own meter reading for two consecutive months ; therefore an5^ 
inaccuracy in the customer's reading is corrected by the com- 
pany's man on his following visit. Experience shows that the 
consumer much prefers this method to having his bill figured on 
the basis of last year or to being billed for two months next time. 
Space on the card is provided for the date of reading, the meter 
number and the name and address of customer. 



204 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

ECONOMIES OF METER READING AND DELIVERY OF 

ACCOUNTS 

The employment of high-school students in addition to the 
necessary regular force to read meters and distribute bills to 
customers has been practiced for several months past by the 
Sandusky (Ohio) Gas & Electric Company. This system, the 
company states, is not only materially reducing the expense of 
reading meters and distributing- bills, but in addition makes it 
possible to reduce the re^lar operating force to a minimum, as 
it has been found that where all meters are read between the 
twentieth of one month and the first of the next it is not always 
possible to keep the entire force busy during the period from the 
first to the twentieth of the month, when no outside construction 
work is under way during the winter months. 

BOYS UNSATISFACTORY AS METER READERS 

The Topeka (Kan.) Edison Company has discontinued its 
practice of using boys, picked up as temporary employees, for 
reading meters. The services of the boys in this respect proved 
to be unsatisfactory and men are taking their places. The men 
are being employed permanently and do other work when they 
are not reading meters. A. H. Purdy, general superintendent of 
the company, expressed the opinion that the company's experi- 
ence with boys was unsatisfactory because it is becoming increas- 
ingly difficult to secure, for temporary work, boys of the type 
needed, since so many of them are engaged in other occupations 
that pay more than a utility company can afford to give for this 
class of work. 

REDUCING THE EXPENSE OF HANDLING ACCOUNTS 

The Central Illinois Light Company of Peoria, 111., has worked 
out a system for handling customers' accounts that it believes is 
particularly adapted to fit its conditions. The system contains 
features, however, that seem also adaptable to the plans of other 
companies as measures of conservation. The features of the 
system lie in the combination gas and electric bill and in the 
machines for handling ledger work. 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 205 

The company bejian usinti' its present combination bill in Jan- 
uar, 1917, although combination gas and electric billing went into 
effect in Jul}^, 1916. J. H. Thomas, chief clerk for the company, 
writing concerning this bill, said : ' ' The advantages of the com- 
bined bill as I see them are, first, elimination of the sorting of 
meter-read slips and bills, thus allowing meter readers to give all 
their time to meter reading and bill distribution; second, ledger 
keepers are enabled to post credits, make delinquent notices and 
draw off balances in one-third less time than formerly ; third, 
cashiers are able to handle customers faster, as it is no longer 
necessary for them to add the gas and electric amounts when the 
bill goes to the consumer with the net amounts extended. Also 
the cashiers require one-third less time in adding the coupons 
than formerly." 

Mr. Thomas continued : 

In January we replaced our long-hand billing with machine billing, 
and I consider this a real conservation measure, as our billing force was 
reduced to one-half of that formerly required. One operator and one 
stamping clerk now handle 29,000 meters per month. Part of our bills 
are extended by machine and part by rubber stamps. By test we have 
proved that extensions may be stamped twice as fast as they could be 
entered by machine. By analyzing our bills for several months we 
found that if we used 300 stamps we could stamp about 75 })er cent of 
all extensions; hence our bill design is such that when the consumption 
in kilowatt-hours or in cubic feet is in excess of fifty (the limit with 
the stamps) the extension can be completed by machine. From our ex- 
perience with machine billing we find that a saving of a})out 30 per cent 
has been effected in billing expense. The other advantages are a much ' 
neater bill and a reduction in the time required between reading and bill 
delivery. 

Our bill is made out directly from the meter-read slip. We do not 
make a recapitulation sheet or use a carbon-copy ledger; therefore, of 
course, do not add meter readings, etc., it being the writer's opinion 
that this checking is nothing short of a "tail wagging the dog" propo- 
sition. 

On Jan. 1, 1918, we also changed to machine-entered ledgers, and 
with these were further able to reduce our force. I am of the belief 
that this ledger installation is the first of its kind. We have used it 
but a short time, but a thorough })reliminarv test was given it. Actual 
working has maintained the results of the test. By its adoption we have 
been able to reduce ledger costs 30 per cent. 



206 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



HANDLING BILLING IN A CITY OF 70,000 

Two youths aged about eighteen deliver the 23,000 monthly 
bills of the Kansas Gas & Electric Company at Wichita, a city of 
70,000 inhabitants according to the 1910 census. These boys are 
paid from $45 to $50 a month. When they are hired they are 
told that the position is permanent and affords them an oppor- 
tunity to work up to the next position, that of meter reader, 
which pays $65 a month with a 10 per cent commission on all 
appliance sales made. 

When the bills are ready for delivery they are first routed by 



ALWAYS PRESENT THIS CARD WITH PAYMENT 

KANSAS GAS & ELECTRIC COMPANY 

OiGoc Houra 8 a. m to 5 p m. 




i 

1 
1 

i 

1 
S 


FLAT RATE 


POWER 


Light to 

Sign to 


























Conaqmed- 

IQO K. W. Hra at le... 

100 K. W Hra at 6c... 

100 K. W Hri at $e... 

200 K. W. Hra. at 4c... 
1000 K. W. Hra. at 3Me 
UOOK. W Hra.at3e... 

..atlHc 







Total Plat Rale. 




'^OMMEPCIAL LIGHTING 





R«ad .. j 

Read .. |_ 

Conaumed- 

K W Hra. Q^ 
K. W. Hra. at t'Ac 
K. W. Hra. at «c .. 





E 












Total Powe 
Total Plat 




Rate 


_ 





Toul Commercial 
UnS«U»aMra«rb<l«rt 













Total Commercial- 










SJIDIac Con 
Net Amoun 


•Ltr- 















Fig. 65 — Post-card Form of Wichita (Kan.) Company 

an office girl, who at the same time wraps advertising literature 
around the post card on which the bill itself is made out. This 
advertising literature is arranged with a 1-in. by 3-in. cut-out so 
that the customer's name and address on the post card show 
through the advertising just as the name and address on a letter- 
head show through the face of a transparent envelope. 

This method of combining advertising matter with the bill has 
been worked out as the Kansas Gas & Electric Company's solu- 
tion of the problem of using the economical post-card bill and at 
the same time enjoying the advantage of sending an advertise- 
ment with each bill. The cost of this advertising alone is about 
$60 per month. Since the United States entered the war the 
company has made it a practice to include patriotic advertising 
in support of the Red Cross, the Liberty loan, ' ' smileage books, ' ' 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 207 

etc., on one side of its leaflet while using the other side for 
promoting- the use of electrical appliances. 



LARGE SAVING BY MACHINE BILLING 

About one year ago the Commonwealth Edison Company of 
Chicago made a trial installation of twelve Elliott Fisher adding 
typewriters. With these machines the company handled 20 per 
cent of its accounts. In using these machines the operator, 
working directly from the meter-reading book, makes out the 
bill, posts the ledger, and makes a recapitulation sheet, all at one 
operation, the entry in the ledger and on the recapitulation sheet 
being a carbon copy of the bill. On each machine there is a 
totalizer, or adding machine, on each column. For instance, 
there is one on both the present and previous wattmeter reading ; 
there is one on the kilowatt-hours used, on the gross bill, discount, 
net bill, etc., and in addition there is a cross-footing mechanism 
and totalizer which subtracts one reading from the other, show- 
ing the net difference ; which distributes the kilowatt-hours at the 
various rates and subtracts the discount from the gross, giving 
the net bill. Fig. 67 is an illustration of the ledger sheet and 
bill form. All the dates and the name and address are put on 
the bill in one operation by the addressograph machine. 

The recapitulation sheet (Fig. 66) is used for several purposes: 
(1) For checking the extension and correctness of the bill; (2) 
to obtain the total of the monthly billing; (3) to obtain the totals 
of the number of customers, kilowatt-hours, and other statistics ; 
(4) to furnish an analysis of output and earnings by rate sched- 
ules; (5) for drawing off various other statistics. 

Recently the company, finding the trial installation satisfac- 
tory, purchased eighteen more machines, bringing its total ecjuip- 
ment up to thirty machines. From its experience with the ma- 
chines the company finds that a saving of 20 per cent on billing 
costs can be effected over the old "longhand" method of billing. 
When it is stated that each bill issued by the company costs about 
16 cents the extent of this saving can be better appreciated. 

Further advantages of the mechanical billing system are that 
the bills look neater and can be turned out faster. It is possible 
to reduce by one-third the time that formerly elapsed between 



208 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



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METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 



209 




210 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



the date of meter reading and the date of delivery of the bill. It 
was at first thought that men would be required to operate the 
machines. Experience has shown, however, that young women 
with a high-school education can easily and quickly become pro- 
ficient operators. 

A BILLING PLAN THAT HASTENS COLLECTIONS 

The Hydro-Electric Light & Power Company of Connersville, 
Ind., has a billing system by which the men who do the meter 
reading at the same time make out the bills and leave them on 



O BECEIF^ O 

THE HYDR&ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER Ca 



roR iLEcraic M 


XVICT 






— "" 






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17>l« Mil b.ram.f drllOilUtat •< Ool 
Mkl m or brl.r, in. u.lti 






Minimum b.ll. Uk Brt 


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Pt£ASE BRING TWS NOTICE 
THE HYDRaElXCTRiC UGHT AND POWEK Ca 



roB ELEcnuc towib ficsvici 




J. P. 
BT 


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PLEASE READ THIS. 



If you discoDDt your electric blUi tbis doe« not apply to 70U. 
BUT-'-li you let your account go delinquent, we want you to read tbl* 
carefully. 



KOA By diMounilnf your b.lli before the lOih. you uve one morith'i bill during the jeir. 

BUls become delinquent. If not paid on or before the Ittta oT 
month following rendering of service, In which case, after due notice, 
service may be discontinued and a charge of SI. 00 will be made In ad* 
vance for reconnecting. 

Plejw «e ihji voiir .ccount it p.».d promptly e.th month ind do n« bliOK lu it 
your llihi, .rt d.,tonn,ttcd (or nonpjymrni We e.nnoi diKnm.n.ie. We muU Otkc 

The Hydro-Electrjc Light & Power Co. 



Fig. 08 — The Three Bill Forms Used by Indiana Central- Station 

Company 

the consumers' premises. The company supplies electric light 
and power service as well as gas in Connersville, which has a 
population of 8000, and also supplies electric service to several 
small towns near by. The general form of bills is the same for 
each class of service, namely, electric light, electric power, elec- 
tric service in nearby towns, and gas. The bills differ somewhat, 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 211 

however, in detail. The three types of electric bills, which the 
company desionates as forms Nos. 107, 108 and 109, are shown 
in Fig. 68. Form No. 107 is the regular lightiim' bill, form Xo. 
108 is the regular power bill, and form No. 109 is the bill which 
is used for small towns where collections are made through the 
banks. The system as it applies to form No. 107 is as follows: 

The bills are made in triplicate and are perforated for easy 
detachment. An addressograph is used to fill in the name, ad- 
dress and date. The last readings and any balances are then put. 
on. The meter readers aim to read 100 bills each half day and 
have ring binders which will take care of that number of bills. 
As they read a meter they make out the bill and leave the third 
copy, bringing back to the office the copies marked "File" and 
"Receipt." Postings are then made, and the bills are dis- 
tributed in an office rack for payment. 

When payment is made the customer is supposed to bring with 
him the third copy. This gives the account number, which is also 
put on by the addressograph along with the name, etc. This plan 
facilitates the locating of the original bill, but, of course, is not 
absolutely necessary. The company's cash register prints the 
receipt on the right end of the customer's copy, showing who 
receives the payment, the account it goes to, the amount, the 
transaction number and the date. The same information is also 
shown on the margin of the company's own copy, which is filed 
for future reference. 

The same system applies to the power and gas bills, but the 
form No. 109 used in small towns is slightly ditt'erent. The 
difference is that the customer brings back his notice to be re- 
ceipted, whereas for the city customer the second office copy is 
receipted. In the small town meter readers leave one notice 
at the house, a second notice at the bank and bring back the first 
copy to the office. 

In response to a query about the cost of operating this system, 
Erie G. AYeeks, treasurer of the company, said: "I have no 
absolute costs, but our men can read 200 meters a day. This 
gives an idea of what the cost would be. We consider that the 
expense of getting the bills ready would be no more than that of 
any other form of billing. 

"There are several very distinct advantages in the use of these 
bills. First is the saving of postage. Second is the fact that 



212 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



the customer can come in and pay his bill just as soon as the 
meter is read. There are many cases where the customer comes 
into the office to pay his bill before the meter reader returns after 
the half day, and since the customer has his own copy of the bill 
we take his money and get the benefit of the use of it. During 
these days of close figuring we feel that this early collection is 
worth something. 

' ' Then, again, we have the use of the advertising on the back of 
the bills. This is not a big expense, and the announcements go to 
every customer, giving us an opportunity of pushing a special 
item each month. The copies shown, however, can hardly be said 
to carry an advertisement. We wanted to urge prompt pay- 
ment. ' ' 

RUBBER STAMPS SAVE EXPENSE 

The Consumers' Electric Light & Power Company of New 
Orleans has introduced a system of rubber stamps to save some 







Fig. 09 — How Public Utility Uses Rubber Stamps to Save Billing 

Expense 



of the clerical work entailed in making out its several thou- 
sand monthly bills. Under the company 's rate lighting service is 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 213 

figured on a slidino- scale and a g:reat deal of calculating is re- 
(juired in figuring the bill totals each month. To make out a 
bill for 800 kw.-hr., for instance, it has been necessary to list tive 
amounts and the total, including, first, the service charge of 25 
cents; second, the first 20 kw.-hr. at 8 cents; then the next 30 
kw.-hr. at 7 cents; then the next 150 kw.-hr. at 6 cents, and the 
final 100 kw.-hr. at 5 cents. These extensions must then be 
totaled. 

A careful analysis of the bills developed the fact that 80 per 
cent of the customers were using somewhere from 1 kw.-hr. to 
300 kw.-hr. per month, and a series of rubber stamps were se- 
cured numbered from 1 to 300, each of which bears the necessary 
calculation to cover that consumption. So that by merely stamp- 
ing the bill the fixed service charge of 25 cents, which is added to 
all retail bills, and all the items on the sliding scale are covered 
in one operation. The billing clerk has these 300 stamps before 
him arranged in a handy rack, from which he can easily pick 
the proper stamp with far less risk of error than in hasty figur- 
ing. The only figuring now necessary on the bill in pen and ink 
is the discount allowed for prompt paj'ment, a simple matter as 
1 cent is allowed for each kilowatt-hour consumed during the 
month. 

It has been found that the use of these stamps makes it possible 
to do the billing in one-third of the time formerly required, and 
with considerable more neatness, besides minimizing the element 
of incorrectness in totaling. General Manager Aicklen recom- 
mends this system to other managers and offers to send a full set 
of impressions from these stamps to any one who desires them. 

POSTAL CARDS FOR BILLING 

In many ways government postal cards present a means of 
saving in billing. For one thing, the stock costs nothing. A 
number of central stations have come around to the use of postal 
cards for bills. The Oklahoma Gas & Electric Company at 
Kiefer and the Sapulpa (Okla.) Electric Company, under the 
management of H. M. Byllesby & Company, use similar cards, 
as shown in Fig. 70. Dates and the space to the right are in 
red and are changed each month, and the space at the left is used 
for advertisements and announcements. 



214 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



TO OKLAHOMA GAS & ELECTRIC CO. DR 

KIEFER, OKLAHOMA 






<;Fr 1 INF 

DEC. 1917 
KIEFER. OKLA 


ELECTRIC CURRENT FOR DECEMBER 1917 


Our 

Wish for You 

A Very 

Prosperous 

New Year 


DEC READlNf, KWH 




CONSUMPTION Kwu 
DISCOUNT lO PER CENTir PAID ON 
OR BEFORE -'"'^ '° 'S'" 

NET AMOUNT 

MINIMUM BILL. NO DISCOUNT 

DELINQUENT BILL NO DISCOUNT 

TOTAL 




























BRING THIS CARD. PLEASE. TO BE RECEIPTED 

FAILURC TO ntCCivc BILL DOES NOT ENTITLE CONSUMER To DISCOUNT 


6000 SERVICE 
'O »Ll 

CONSUMEMS 


SENDTHISSTUa 

WHEN YOU REMIT 

BY CHECK 



Fig. 70 — Postal Card Bills Have Their Owx Advantages 

GAS AND ELECTRIC BILLS ON SAME POST CARD 

While the post-card bill has been used rather extensively by 
both gas companies and electric companies, it is rather unusual 
to find a combination gas and electric company placing both 



To FORT SMITH LI6HT fc TRACTION CO. Dr. 

FOMT SMITH AND VAN BUREN. ARK. APRIL, 1918 


APRIL, 


1918 


UAS: 

April Reading 

March Reading 

Cubic Feet Used 000 Net 

Should Injunction be diaaoloed and 17-cant rat* applp. poa 
will be entitled to a refund on thia bill of r 


CAS 


CA3 




ELBcrruici 

April Reading . 

March Reading , Gross 

Difference . Disc. 


ELECTRIC 


■lLECTRIC 


X : K.W.H. Used Net 


Previous Balance 






TOTAL 






To receive discount, bills must be paid on or before the 
10th of month following that in which service is rendered. 

Failure to receive bill does not entitle constuner to 
discount 

PLEASE BRING THIS CARD 


Mail 
end with 


this 
check 



Fig. 71 — Combination Bill of Arkansas Company 

electric and gas bills on the same post card. This practice, how- 
ever, has been resorted to by the Fort Smith (Ark.) Light & 
Traction Company in an effort to keep its billing costs as low as 
possible. The accompanying illustration (Fig. 71) shows how 
the readings and the items indicating cost of service are arranged 
on the card. It is the intention of the auditing department of 
the company to add a place on this post-card bill later for mer- 
chandise accounts, thus further reducing the number of different 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 215 

forms used by the company to cut down billing expense. Tlie 
company has about 4010 electric meters and 6459 gas meters, 
making a total of 10,469 meters in service in the two cities of 
Fort Smith and Van Buren which it serves. 



RECENT METHODS OF BILL DELIVERY 

With the thought and energy of every central station concen- 
trated as never before on measures of economy, a great many 
companies have turned a searching eye on their methods of deliv- 
ering the monthly statement. The increase in the postal rates 
has brought a considerable additional cost in many cases, and the 
loss of men into the national service has generally reduced the 
organization available for carrying on routine v^^ork of this kind. 

When the postage rate went up, of course, the idea of discon- 
tinuing the mailing of the monthly service bills and delivering 
them instead naturally suggested itself. There is more than the 
question of cost involved, however, for the mailing of a bill is 
generally conceded to be satisfactory proof of its delivery. 
Moreover, if delivered by hand, should this be done by meter 
readers, high-school boys, old men, girls or women? Or, if 
mailed, which is the better — post-card or regular bill inclosed in 
envelope ? These questions are particularly pertinent and worth 
consideration by every central station. 

Not long ago — but before the postal rates went up — the Cleve- 
land Electric Illuminating Company made an analysis of the 
cost of its bill delivery, which includes 60,000 bills delivered by 
hand and 40,000 by mail, to find out how much could be saved 
by using a post-card bill. The figures were found to be as shown 
in the accompanying table. 

AVith the 1-cent postage rate the post-card proved to be the 
cheaper method, but the doubling of this cost made the hand- 
delivery system far more economical. The system in Cleveland 
has been to place the delivered bill in the consumer 's mail box, or 
if there is no box to hand it to a member of the family. Failing 
this, the distributer brings back the bill and it is mailed. For 
this delivery the Cleveland company first tried boj^s sixteen or 
eighteen years old, but did not find them satisfactory. It then 
employed elderly men of from fifty to sixty-five years and has 
practically eliminated all complaints. 



216 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

In Sandusky, Ohio, however, the Sandusky, Gas & Electric 
Company has had most satisfactory results from high-school 
boys, who both read the meters and deliver the bills. The boys 
receive 1 cent per meter read. Before the postal rate went up the 
company used government post cards, but since then it has de- 
vised a card of the same size, of which a six months' supply can be 
printed in advance. These are stamped and mailed to customers 
beyond the convenient reach of the delivery routes, but the bulk 

compaeison of cost of present system of handling 100,000 consumers' 

Bills per Month with Proposed Special Card or Government 

1-Cent Post-Card System, at Cleveland, Ohio 

Present system, printed bill in outlook envelope; 60,000 delivered by 
company distributors, 40,000 mailed with 2-cent stamps. 

present SYSTEM: 

100,000 bills, at $1.50 per 1000 $150.00 

100,000 outlook envelopes, at $1.65 per 1000 165.00 

40,000 2-cent stamps in rolls 802.40 

Inclosing bills in envelopes — 2 boys one month at $40 

each 80.00 

Sealing 100,000 envelopes and affixing 40,000 stamps, 

one boy one month 45.00 

V Sorting 60,000 bills for delivery, one boy one month . . 40.00 

V Delivering 60,000 bills, live men at $70 per month 350.00 

Supervising delivery, half time of one man at $100. .. . 50.00 

Total $1,682.40 

proposed SYSTEM: 

Special Cards, 1-Cent Post Stamp A^xed: 

100,000 cards, printed $116.00 

Affixing stamps, one boy one month 45.00 

100,000, 1-cent stamps, in rolls 1,006.00 

Total 1,167.00 

Amount saved by using special cards and affixing 

stamps $515.40 

Government 1-Cent Post Cards: 

100,000 cards $1,000.00 

Printing 25.84 

Total $1,025.84 

Additional saving with government cards 141.16 

Amount saved by using government stamped 

cards $656.56 

Items checked V indicate expense of delivering 60,000 bills per month. 
To find total delivery expense on 100,000 bills, add item No. 3, 40,000 2-cent 
stamps, $802.40. 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 217 

of them the boys deliver at a cost so far of approximately a half 
cent per bill. This the company finds is effecting a saving of 
$18 per 1000 customers per month on postage alone and is bring- 
ing additional economy by reducing the operating force to a 
minimum during the winter. Because of the limited number of 
hours that the students have available for this work, it is neces- 
sary to employ a much larger number than if the regular em- 
ployees were handling it, but this has not proved an objection. 
About 9000 bills are delivered in Sandusky between the twentieth 
and the last of each month. 

In Mobile, Ala., the company now delivers by hand at a cost 
of about V/i cents per bill, a saving of about $37.50 a month since 
the postal increase. In Traverse City, Mich., the company deliv- 
ers to about 1400 consumers at a cost of 1 cent, and this also 
includes collecting about one-third of the accounts. In Pine 
Bluff, Ark., the company delivers 4500 bills, using the regular 
meter readers after the readings are completed. It requires from 
four to five days and costs in all, it is figured, from $10.50 to 
$12.50. In Kokomo, Ind., the company has also changed from 
mailing to delivery and is distributing 6000 bills by meter read- 
ers at a cost of $35. In Kingston, N. Y., the meter readers now 
deliver 5800 gas and electric bills, all except about 300 which are 
mailed to outlying territory, and the company finds the system 
quite as dependable as by mail. It saves approximately $50 
every month. In Indianapolis the meter-men of the Merchants' 
Heat & Light Company read meters every morning and deliver 
bills in the afternoon, and the}' have proved much more respon- 
sible than schoolboys, though boys were tried. The cost per bill 
now figures about 1 cent. In Denver the bills are mailed to the 
suburbs but delivered in the city by boys and young men on 
bicycles at a cost of one-third of a cent per bill. 

In Wilkes-Barre, Pa., 19,500 bills — gas, electric and steam heat 
— are delivered by two men, who receive $65 per month, deliver- 
ing continuously, which means a cost of about one-half cent per 
bill. These men collect when possible as they deliver. In Terre 
Haute, Ind., the company formerly had mailed all bills at a total 
cost of $125 monthly, but with the higher postal rate began deliv- 
ering all bills within the city by one man, who is paid $45. The 
remaining postage cost for bills still mailed is also $45, so that in 
spite of higher postage the company is saving $35 monthly. 



218 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

The consensus of opinion, therefore, judged from the experi- 
ence of these and a large number of other cities heard from, 
would clearly recommend the delivery of bills within the centers 
of dense population. One Pennsylvania company, moreover, 
which operates through an extensive rural territory serving about 
75,000 population, is delivering all bills in spite of distances, and 
claims a deliver}^ cost of 0.92 cent per bill on a total of 7016 bills. 
This company lays much stress at the same time on the value of 
the collectors in maintaining good relations with the consumer, a 
point which is echoed by a number of other companies. Men are 
picked who do their work in a friendly spirit, and much good 
comes of it. 

On the other hand, in many outlying towns in Indiana the 
Indiana Railways & Light Company began with this year to try 
the plan of not sending any bills at all to some 2000 customers, 
who are asked to call at the local offices to pay their bills, though 
delinquency notices are still mailed when necessary. In line 
with this, in Brattleboro, Va. ; in Franklin, Ind., and in Seymour, 
Ind., the local utilities have been furnishing many customers 
with cards on which to make their own meter readings. This 
method has met with considerable success. In Fort Madison, 
Iowa, the meter reader in certain residence districts carries with 
him bills already partly made out, on which he enters the read- 
ing, making out the bill and presenting it for collection at the 
one call. The company's other bills go out on post cards, and, 
in short, since the rates went up there has been a decided move- 
ment in the industry toward the post-card bill as offering an 
appropriate war-time economy. 

Few Companies Using Women. All in all, however, the 
trend is toward delivery, if not by meter reader, then by boys or 
old men. One New England central station has found a prac- 
tical solution by making use of the services of the substitute post- 
men, who, though on waiting orders, are familiar with the town 
and have received instructions in delivering. Everywhere the 
possible expedient of utilizing women for delivering has been con- 
sidered, but apparently it has not been adopted very largely. 
However, El Reno, Okla., reports the bill delivery in charge of 
two young women, who are taking care of it well and at a saving 
of $30 monthly on postage. At Binghamton, N. Y., girls are 
used to read meters and deliver bills. 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 219 

Of course, the many cities where bills have always been mailed 
at the 2-cent rate are not affected by the postal increase. Buffalo 
and Wilmington, Del., state that they have no intention of chang- 
ing, for they consider mailing less trouble and more sure. In 
Detroit, on the other hand, the company has been delivering bills 
by messenger for years at a cost much less than postage, the meter 
readers delivering the bills. In Providence, R. I., the method is 
optional with the consumer in most districts. He may have it by 
mail or messenger, as he prefers, and bills for suburban towns 
are delivered to the suburban pont offices and mailed there under 
the local rate. There is plainly enough diversity, therefore, to 
suggest the advisability of every man looking well to his own 
conditions locally; but in the majority of cases delivery seems to 
be the preferred method. 

ECONOMY IN BILL DELIVERY 

Phases of operation, such as the distribution of statements, 
which during pre-war periods received only passing attention, 
are demanding greater consideration, writes 0. M. Booher, chair- 
man commercial section Indiana Electric Light Association. All 
unnecessary expense is being eliminated and all necessary ex- 
pense is being reduced. Long-established customs are now 
giving ground to different and more economical methods. This 
is especially true in the distribution of bills. During the pre- 
war period a very large percentage of this work was handled by 
mail ; to-day many companies ask their patrons to call at the 
office for their statements, and many others deliver their state- 
ments in person. ]\Iost of these changes of methods have taken 
place at least since the recent increase in postal rates. 

The acid test of a plan is the way it works out in practice. 
From the standpoint of economy a certain arrangement may be 
fine and at the same time prove to be very impracticable from 
other angles. Considering the plan of bill delivering in person, 
there arises the complaints from customers who are displeased 
because of not receiving the statement regularly or receiving the 
wrong statement, etc. Another phase of this plan which must be 
considered is the general public opinion regarding the evasion of 
the war revenue which would be derived from the increase in 
postal rates. 



220 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

The Indiana Railways & Light Company believes the saving 
effected by personal delivery more than offsets a few scattered 
criticisms and complaints which are heard from time to time from 
the customers. During the pre-war period it was mailing its 
bills for the exact cost of $11 per 1000. This includes postal 
cards and printing. It is to-day delivering in person at a cost 
of $10.60 per 1000, including paper stock, printing and labor. 
Had it continued to send its statements out by mail the cost 
would be $21 per 1000. In other words, the company is saving 
$10.40 per 1000, and for 8000 accounts a saving is realized of 
$83.20 per month, or approximately $1,000 per annum. The 
labor item figures 0.74 cents per statement delivered. The state- 
ments are delivered by the metermen. 

Mr. Booher is of the opinion that, considering the utility as a 
highly important war-time essential, the operators are perform- 
ing a patriotic duty in trying to maintain financial equilibrium 
in order that the utility may continue to remain a valuable war 
asset. And if $1,000 per year can be saved by changing this or 
that operating plan, the change should be made, for such a 
change would be more in keeping with the general war pro- 
gram than the purchase of a few postage stamps, which net the 
government an infinitesimal profit. 

Questionnaires were forwarded to forty-three leading member 
companies of the Indiana Electric Light Association, represent- 
ing fifty-six different properties. Twenty-eight replies, represent- 
ing thirty-nine properties, were received. The first question was, 
*'Do you deliver by mail, in person, or are bills held at office?" 
There were thirty-four replies, divided as follows : By person, 
15; by mail, 8; bills held at office, 11. One reported that bills 
were made out and left by readers. Question number two asked 
for the cost per statement delivered by person. There were 
twelve answers. The average was 0.89 cent each. Question 
number three asked, ''Do you have many complaints from cus- 
tomers where bills are delivered in person?" All answered, ''A 
few." In seven cases the meter readers did the delivering, in 
two cases office clerks, in two cases young boys, and in one case 
an office girl. It is of interest to note that where boys were used 
the cost per statement averaged only 0.49 cent each. 

Because of the scarcity of men no doubt many companies which 
deliver the bills in person are considering the employment of 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 221 

women. So far as is known, this arrangement is not in use at 
this time to any extended degree. When the time comes there is 
no doubt that women will prove capable not only to deliver state- 
ments but to read and test meters and perform many other simi- 
lar duties. Another plan which might be considered is that of 
placing bill delivery in the hands of outside agents. In some 
cases agents may contract with all other local utilities for the per- 
formance of this duty and consequently be able to make a very 
attractive price. IMr. Booher feels, however, that the work 
should be done by men inside of the company in order that all 
irregularities may be properly looked after. From the replies 
received from the various companies regarding bill distribution 
it would appear that this question has not received proper con- 
sideration in some cases, or that there exists a wide difference 
of opinion. 

''CASH-AND-CARRY" PLAN APPLIED TO LIGHT BILLS 

Lighting companies operating in small communities have been 
under a greater comparative strain during the past two years 
than those operating in larger places. With little opportunity to 
increase their load, with fixed rates and the increasing cost of 



Electric Light 

and Power Bills 

Will be ready for distribution at the Company's office 

January 1st 

We are discontinuing the old practice of delivering bills, 
and will be pleased to have you cooperate with us by 
calling for your bill promptly. 

Respectfully^ 

Fayette County Utilities Go. 



Fig. 72 — Advertisement Used to Announce Change in J3illing Method 



222 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

operation, these small companies, which never did as a class enjoy 
an enviable net profit, have been hard pushed these days to show 
any profit at all. To prevent disaster economies must be put into 
practice wherever possible. A single example of an economical 
measure particularly adaptable to the small-town property is out- 
lined below. It is a method for cutting the cost of billing. 

Several subsidiaries of the Utilities Development Corporation 
of Chicago have discontinued their old practice of distributing 
or mailing bills for electric service to consumers. Instead they 
now advertise that the bills are ready for distribution at the 
company's office and request customers to call for them. The 
companies which have tried the plan, according to Miss L. M. 
Beefield of the Utilities Development Corporation, are enthusias- 
tic over its success. 

The Fayette County Utilities Company, Oelwein, Iowa, one 
of the subsidiaries using the plan, reports that in November the 
expense of sending out the bills was approximately $18.65 under 
the former method, and this represented the situation generally 
throughout the industry. This figure included payment of 1 
cent per bill to the high-school boy who delivered the majority 
of the bills, besides the cost of envelopes, labor of folding, inclos- 
ing, sealing and stamping the remainder, plus postage. In De- 
cember, under the new system, the expense was only $7.50, 
namely $2 for the advertisement and $5 for postage on the bills 
which were not called for, plus about 50 cents for the envelopes. 
Seventy-five per cent of the bills were called for by Jan. 15 after 
the advertisement (Fig. 72) that made the announcement as of 
Jan. 1. A far greater proportion of bills called for is expected in 
succeeding months, inasmuch as many customers failed to notice 
the advertisement and were awaiting the receipt of their bills 
by carrier. 

In commenting on the plan the Oelwein company stated : ''As 
a labor-saver the plan is a wonder. It does away with the fold- 
ing and inclosing of the bills, together with the sealing and 
stamping of envelopes, and we certainly appreciate this extra 
time along about the latter part of the month ! ' ' 

In trying out this plan, however, a word of caution is neces- 
sary. If a customer does not call for his statement, he should be 
billed. Otherwise a customer might get two or three months in 
arrears and find it difficult to make a settlement. In such a case 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 223 

not onh' does the coinpaii}' stand to take a loss which might wipe 
out the saving of a whole month but it is also likely to make an 
enemy. 

SPEEDING UP COLLECTIONS 

It appears the question of collections looms large, partic- 
ularly at this time, when every dollar must be worked and 
worked to the limit, writes O. ]\I. Booher, chairman commercial 
section Indiana Electric Light Association. The usual custom 
of having the local central station serve its community in the 
capacity of a bank, without proper banking rules and regulations, 
is poor business, even when money is easy. The tightening up of 
money naturally should lead the central station to think of means 
to hasten collections. The practice of time payments on mer- 
chandise and miscellaneous sales accounts should be either en- 
tirely eliminated or greatly reduced unless a fair rate of interest 
is collected or unless the sales profits are amply sufficient to war- 
rant time payments. 

Reconnection Charge Should Be Enforced, All companies 
should establish and enforce without discrimination certain pen- 
alties for non-payment. In extreme cases, W'here disconnections 
are necessary, a charge for reconnection is not out of place if the 
''chronics" are to be eliminated. There has been enforced in 
Kokomo, Ind., a reconnection charge of $1 and it is found that 
it adds materially to collections as a whole, helping to reduce 
non-collectibles to less than 0.5 per cent. Little adverse public 
comment is caused by this practice. 

Another feasible plan which is working out successfully, 
especially with the larger companies, is the establishment of 
authorized agencies in each small community center where all 
bills save those in dispute or in arrears may be paid. Such a 

Replies to Questions Asked of Forty-eight Electric Companies 

Number Averaj^e of 

Answerinf^ Yes No Answers 

Do you allow cash discount 37 28 9 ... 

Do you send out delinquent notices. . . 30 30 
Do you discount for non-payment after 

a certain date 36 34 2 

Do you char*?e for reconnection 38 17 21 

Per cent, of bills collected durinpr dis- 
count period 31 . . . . 78.5 

Per cent, receiving delinquent notices 30 . . . . 11.2 
Per cent, of total monthly receipts 

considered non-collectible 24 . . . . 0.87 



224 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

system adds much to the convenience of the customer and speeds 
up collections considerably. At the same time it creates public 
good will. 

The question of collections is closely affiliated with public 
policy. Labor is scarce and its scarcity is increasing, conse- 
quently labor is growing much more independent. A man can be 
loyal to his company or disloyal as he chooses. He can get a job 
just as good, or maybe a little better, somewhere else. Therefore 
great care should be exercised in the selection of a man to place 
in charge of collections, so as to be sure that the company's 
interest will be carefully looked after. The customer should not 
be antagonized or insulted because he is a little late paying his 
bills. In other words, proper discretion should be exercised, and 
this will not be done unless a man of acquaintance and one who 
is in touch with the public pulse be employed. 

How Thirty Indiana Companies Do It. In order to sum- 
marize the collection practice of a number of companies letters 
were sent to forty-eight members of the Indiana Electric Light 
Association. The replies received are reviewed in the table here- 
with. These replies show that a majority of companies favor 
allowing cash discount, sending out delinquent notices and dis- 
connecting promptly for non-payment. Opinion seems to be 
about equally divided for and against a charge for reconnection. 
The replies also show that 78.5 per cent of the customers take 
advantage of cash discounts and 11.2 per cent wait to receive 
delinquent notices. The average of accounts considered non- 
collectible amounts to the surprisingly high figure of 0.87 per 
cent. 

The letters also brought out that in thirty-one companies the 
collections are looked after as follows : Two companies by man- 
ager of collections, five companies by chief clerk, eight companies 
by cashier, two companies by auditor, seven companies by office 
force, six companies by general manager, and one company by 
treasurer. In most cases the same individual looks after collec- 
tions of accounts for merchandise, motors and signs as well as 
customers ' monthly accounts for energy consumed. 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 225 

GRANTING CREDIT 

When every dollar means so much, when losses must be min- 
imized, the necessity for stricter credits becomes apparent. The 
credit department of a central-station company therefore occu- 
pies a much more important position than formerly. Strict 
methods calculated to keep down losses are all the more desirable. 
Such methods are outlined in the following statement showing 
how a large Middle Western utility takes care of its customers' 
credits. 

Two Classes of Contracts. Commercial contracts are re- 
ceived in the credit department from the contract department, 
and on receipt are stamped on a receiving time stamp showing the 
exact time of arrival in the department. They are then checked 
off in a receiving book, which is an index as to whether or not the 
contracts have been received or are being held in the department. 
The credit slip attached to each contract then receives a number 
similar to the contract, by which it can be identified later on 
should it become necessary to refer to it. After a careful exami- 
nation of the signature on each is made, the contracts, which may 
be divided as class 1 and class 2, are handled in the following 
manner : 

Class 1 — Applications from those claiming to be former con- 
sumers and giving address of former location as reference. The 
account is looked up to ascertain the customer 's habit of pay and 
to find out whether the account is paid up to date. If the inves- 
tigation proves satisfactory, the application is passed without 
further delay. If, however, the customer has paid penalty 
month after month, or if it has been necessary to cut off his 
service in order to force payment, a deposit for the new address 
is required. 

When a deposit is necessary the customer is so notified by let- 
ter and the application is held pending its receipt. Upon receipt 
of the deposit a deposit certificate is issued and mailed to the de- 
positor and the application is approved for service. When more 
than the current bills at the previous address are found owing a 
statement is sent the customer, with a letter notifying him that no 
service will be given until payment is made. The account in 
arrears is noted ''Notify credit department when paid," so that 
in the event of the payment crossing the letter in the mail, the 



226 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

bookkeeper will advise of receipt of payment at once and thus 
avoid unnecessary delay. The application is filed in the holding 
file, and no service given, until account is paid. 

Class 2 — Applications from those claiming never to have used 
company 's service. This class of applications is looked up in the 
suspense file to ascertain whether the applicant has not over- 
looked a previous address where service has been used and a bal- 
ance remains unpaid. If the suspense file discloses such an 
account, the applicant is advised by letter of such indebtedness 
and payment requested, the application being held and no service 
given until payment is made. 

Duplicate Copies of Applications. When the suspense 
account discloses no indebtedness, rating books are consulted, in 
some cases special reports from the rating agencies are obtained, 
or references offered as to the responsibility and credit standing 
of the applicant are investigated. Should the investigation 
prove unsatisfactory, a deposit is requested which is equal to two 
months ' bills, the amount of the bills being estimated by installa- 
tion, location and class of business. This deposit is requested by 
letter and the application filed in the holding file until received. 

Owners of real estate in good standing are passed after claim 
of ownership has been verified. Applicants who object to mak- 
ing a cash deposit can furnish a guarantee from a real estate 
owner in good standing, or from a responsible business man, 
guarantor being required to sign a form adopted for this pur- 
pose. 

A duplicate copy of all resident applications taken in the con- 
tract department is received in the credit department each morn- 
ing. On these applications the service has been given before the 
credit has been passed so as not to inconvenience the applicant 
while credit is being investigated. On receipt of these duplicate 
copies of the application the same routine is followed as with the 
commercial contracts. When deposits are required which the 
applicant refuses to pay service is disconnected and the meter re- 
moved in a manner to be explained further along. 

All letters requesting a deposit or unpaid balance have two 
carbon copies. One of these copies is attached to the applica- 
tion and filed in the holding file and the other is filed in an 
every-day file seven days after date. When these copies are 
reached they are checked with the holding file, and in all cases 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 227 

where the request has been complied with the copies are de- 
stroj^ed, but those from whom there has been no reply receive a 
second letter calling attention to the first one and requesting a 
reply. These second letters also have two copies, one of which 
is attached to the application and returned to the holding file, 
and the other placed in the every-day file seven days ahead. If 
no response is had to this letter at the end of seven days, the 
application is removed from the file, and if the applicant has no 
service at the new address it is canceled and returned to the 
contract department. 

Where a deposit is found to be necessary from applicants for 
commercial lighting who move into a location where light is 
already installed and in use, and for all resident applications 
where service has been turned on before credit is investigated, a 
shut-off notice is made out at the time the first deposit letter is 
written. This shut-off order instructs the shut-off collector to 
call and obtain the deposit or disconnect the service. When the 
collector calls, unless deposit is received or a good reason given 
for its not being made, or satisfactory information as to the 
applicant 's credit standing given, service is discontinued. These 
cut-offs are held ten days, and if the applicant does not call or 
make some attempt to satisfy credit, the meter is ordered re- 
moved. When the repair department reports back that the meter 
has been removed the application is canceled and returned to the 
contract department. 

In all cases where commercial applications are held in the 
credit department the contract department is notified at once why 
application is being held, and in cases where the applicant is the 
successor and the service has not been discontinued for the prede- 
cessor a status slip accompanies the notice requesting that the 
successor be billed from the date of his application. 

When a final bill is rendered and not paid a statement is made 
out in duplicate by the collection department and a duplicate 
copy is sent to the credit department, where a record is taken of 
it on a card and the card then filed in the suspense file. Where 
the delinquent is a corporation or partnership the credit slip 
received with the contract is referred to, and the officers' or part- 
ners' names and addresses are ascertained and a card made in 
each of their names, with a notation thereon to refer to the 
card for the company of which they are members. The dupli- 



228 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

cate statement is then stamped "Suspense" and returned to 
the district head in charge of collections, to be used as a check 
on the collector. The statement is then worked by the collector, 
and a report of his calls and their results is noted on the reverse 
side. Should the statement be collected or paid at the office, the 
statement is returned to the credit department so noted, and the 
card is withdrawn from the suspense file and destroyed. Should 
the account prove uncollectible and it be found necessary to send 
to an attorney, the statement of the collector, with his reports 
noted thereon, is returned to the credit department and any in- 
formation of value obtained by the collector is transferred to the 
suspense card to aid in the collection of the account later if 
opportunity arise. 

The value of the suspense file depends in large measure on ob- 
taining the applicant's full first name. If the customer insists on 
signing the first initial only, he may be allowed to do so, but 
effort is made to find out what the initial stands for and to note 
this on the application. The number of suspense cards made out 
and filed by this company averages approximately 3500 per 
month, and the average monthly revenue obtained from this file 
during the past year amounted to $800, or almost $10,000 in the 
course of the year. 

Handling Merchandise Sales Orders. Merchandise sales or- 
ders are handled as are light and power applications. Many 
firms are trading on open account with this company, and some 
accounts must be watched closely, letters being continually writ- 
ten requesting payment on slow accounts, and in a few cases 
credit being stopped completely pending settlement. 

A card file is kept in the department showing customer's name, 
service location, date signed, the predecessor's name if it is a 
successor application, the name of the company's agent obtaining 
the business, and the order number of the contract, which num- 
ber agrees with the number on the credit slips. Another file is 
kept which shows all deposits of record, by whom made and for 
what address, and still another file for line extension advances, 
which are taken by the credit department and either applied on 
the light and power account, if the customer is a consumer, or 
transferred by journal entry to a holding account. 

Granting Credit upon House-wiring Contracts. On receipt 
of a house-wiring contract the name and location are entered 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 229 

•ill the receiving book, and a number is o-iven as a means of 
identification. The location is then looked up through a firm 
employed for this purpose to see if the applicant's claim of 
ownership caii be verified, the credit data are checked, and ref- 
erences are investigated as in commercial and residence con- 
tracts. If the investigation shows the applicant to be a good 
credit risk, holding title to the premises where the work is to be 
done, and the relation of the encumbrance to the valuation is 
not excessive, the contract is approved. If, however, the appli- 
cant is found to be buying the premises on contract of recent 
date and his equity therein is not sufifiicient to warrant the instal- 
lation, the holder of title is urged to sign the contract jointly with 
the applicant. Should the records show the applicant to be buy- 
ing the property on contract which has extended over a period 
of years and upon which a substantial sum has been paid, the 
owner of record is requested to sign a rider giving date of the 
contract of sale, the amount involved in the contract, the amount 
the applicant has paid on same to date, and permission to the 
company to install the wiring, which permission carries the stip- 
ulation that all bills are to be paid by the applicant. Contracts 
of this nature handled by this company average in price, includ- 
ing fixtures, from $60 up, most of them being around $200, but 
occasionally single contracts amount to $2,000 and more. 

Handling Motor and Wiring Order Credits. In taking care 
of credit matters on orders for motors or for wiring the practice 
of the company is as follows : 

If applicant for motor or wiring is a consumer, both his service 
and mercantile accounts are scanned and if habit of pay is good 
the order is approved. If payment is slow or the customer's ac- 
count would not justify the amount or terms of the order, the 
customer is so notified and payment in full or in part, as the case 
may be, is requested in advance. 

Should the applicant not be a consumer, his rating, if any, is 
looked up, his references are investigated, and if found satisfac- 
tory the order is passed. If investigation proves otherwise, ap- 
plicant is notified and advance requested, and a copy of such 
notice is filed seven days ahead, which if not acted on, is removed 
from the file and a second or follow-up letter is written, a copy of 
which is also held seven days, at which time the contract is can- 
celed and returned to the contract department if the applicant's 



230 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

check is not received. In some cases in the sale of motors, ex- 
haust fans, etc., chattel mortgages are requested to enable the 
company to recover property should the applicant default in pay- 
ment. 

COLLECTING THE ACCOUNT 

There are many ways of collecting accounts. Methods em- 
ployed by some companies irritate and antagonize customers. 
Other methods create respect. In some instances collection de- 
partments set out with the avowed intention of creating a reputa- 
tion for harshly handling customers in order that the customers' 
fear of such handling shall assist in reducing a number of over- 
due accounts. Some utilities have been known to go so far as 
intentionally to attract the attention of the delinquent's neigh- 
bors to the fact that trouble is ensuing over the payment of a bill. 
In general, however, this is not the accepted plan among more 
progressive central stations. Their plan generally is to adopt 
systematic, thorough and painstaking but withal firm measures 
of insisting upon payment. It is the endeavor to cultivate the 
good will of the customer rather than to antagonize him. 

Methods of a Middle West Company. As characteristic of 
these practices the following description of methods employed 
by the credit manager of a Middle Western electric lighting 
utility is of interest : This collection system requires the render- 
ing of three statements on all delinquent accounts, namely, the 
memorandum of arrears, the collector's statement and the ''Im- 
portant" statement. Formerly these statements were printed on 
addressographs from stencils used for printing the bills and 
were filled in by long-hand by statement clerks. Recently, how- 
ever, the department has adopted a very modern system of ren- 
dering these statements through the^use of four Underwood-type 
fanfold statement machines. The operation is now so handled 
that six copies are made in one operation, namely, memorandum 
of arrears, cashier's stub of memorandum, "Important" state- 
ment, cashier's stub of "Important" statement, collector's state- 
ment, office copy of collector's statement. 

When an account is ten days past due — that is, twenty days 
after the bill has been rendered — the company sends the customer 
by mail the memorandum of arrears, in which is printed the fol- 
lowing paragraph : 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 231 

"Please note that bills listed above have not been paid. As 
same are past due, the favor of your remittance by return mail 
is requested." 

This statement usually brings payment from customers who 
have misplaced or neglected their bills. To those who pay no 
attention to it, it is necessary to render the collector 's statement. 
This is sent out ten days after the memorandum of arrears state- 
ment was mailed. The collector 's statement is made in duplicate, 
one copy being for the collector and one for the office records. 
It constitutes the first call statement and is the beginning of the 
collection department's intimate relations with the customer. If 
the collector is not successful in securing the money on the first 
call, he leaves a collector's first notice, which shows the amount 
due and reads as follows : 

''Your attention is called to your past due and unpaid account 

for electricity amounting to $ , covering dates for electrical 

merchandise $ , electric wiring $ . Please remit or call 

at our office and make payment without delay." 

Five days later, if no collection has been made, the "Impor- 
tant" statement is mailed. This bears a shut-off notice reading 
as follows : 

"We beg to draw your attention to your past-due account as 
listed above. We request that this account be paid before the 

close of business on . Otherwise we shall be obliged, w4th 

regret, to enforce our rule relative to discontinuing service. ' ' 

After allowing three days for the customer to make payment 
the collector makes his second call to collect or discontinue serv- 
ice. He must, however, interview the customer and get his re- 
fusal to pay before service is discontinued. In the event that the 
customer is not at home he will not shut off the service, but will 
leave a final shut-off notice which reads as follows : 

"We beg to advise that, in accordance with notice sent you 

for your unpaid account for electricity amounting to $ , call 

has been made to-day to shut off service. We hope you will ren- 
der this action unnecessary by paying bill at once at the main 
office." 

The Third and Last Call. This means that the third call must 
be made if the customer does not remit. On the third call the 
customer must pay or service will be discontinued. If conditions 
are such that the collector cannot reach the meter, the case is 



232 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

turned over to the repair department to collect account or to 
discontinue service if necessary at the pole. Before this action 
is taken, however, a letter is addressed to the customer informing 
him that such action will be taken if the account is not paid. In 
the event that the service is shut off the collector leaves a slip at 
the meter showing the amount of the overdue account which was 
the cause of discontinuing service. Upon the payment of this 
account the customer can have the service reconnected the same 
day it is discontinued. 

As these various steps are taken memoranda are made on the 
customer's account at the office so that any inquiry as to the 
status of his account may be answered. 

After service has been discontinued for non-payment the re- 
port is held fifteen days, during which time another call is made 
to collect the account if possible. If the account is not paid, the 
contract department is informed of the situation and requested 
to issue an order to have the meter removed. 

Dealings with Customers Who Have Moved. The next task 
of the collection department is to get the money on the final ac- 
counts of customers who have moved or whose meters were re- 
moved on account of non-payment. 

First in order, there is the case of the customer who has moved 
and is using service at another address. If the balance owed is 
less than $1.50, the amount is added to his bill, which will be sent 
to the new address. If the amount is more than $1.50, it is given 
to a collector. If he does not secure the balance, he will leave a 
notice for the customer. If the customer then does not remit 
within ten days, another letter is sent requesting payment. Ten 
days later, if the account has not been paid, a shut-off notice 
letter is mailed stating that service will be discontinued within 
three days. 

Second, there is the case of the customer owing a final account 
who gave the company his new address at the time he ordered 
service discontinued but who is not using service at the new ad- 
dress. The collector calls upon this man and, if he cannot col- 
lect the amount, leaves a notice that the balance is due. If pay- 
ment is not made within ten days, two letters are written at inter- 
vals of ten days requesting payment. If remittance is not made 
then, the collector makes another call. If he is unable then to 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 



233 



collect the amount or to get satisfactory promise of payment, 
credit data are referred to. 

If the correct business address of the customer is shown in 
the credit data, a call is made at this address and then a letter 
is sent to the business address stating that the account will be sent 
to an attorney for payment if it is not settled. After this a 
few more calls are made b}- the collector to establish definitely 
the fact that it is impossible to get the money. Then the account 
is turned over to the company's attorney with all of the collector's 
reports, copies of letters, credit data, etc. A card is also filed in 
the credit department's suspense file to prevent the delinquent 
from securing further service from the company while his account 
remains unpaid. 

Throughout all of these operations it is the intention of the 
department to exercise patience and to endeavor to cultivate the 
good will of the customer and at the same time to establish in 
the mind of the customer respect for the collection department. 



REDUCING THE DELINQUENT ACCOUNT BY 80 

PER CENT. 

In one year the Muncie (Ind.) Electric Light Company re- 
duced its delinquency account from $12,591.98 to $2,225.51, or 
more than 80 per cent. This was done, says C. L. Walling in 
the Bulletin of the American Gas & Electric Company, the parent 
organization, first, by creating the office of manager of collec- 



Name 



Address _ 
Amount . 
Business . 
Remarlcs 



. Folio - 



J. E. No.. 



Date. 



Fig. 73 — FRO^fx of Card for Delinquent File 



234 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



tions; second, by insisting upon a deposit with each contract; 
third, by never closing the books on a bad account, and, fourth, 
by keeping continually after the old offenders and educating 
them to pay their bills promptly. The following figures serve to 
show how well this plan worked out : 

1917 1916 

January $11,008.94 $7,444.22 

February 10,348.00 9,064.80 

March 6,839.73 9,672.39 

April 6,703.13 9,461.24 

May 5,513.07 10,302.97 

June 5,140.99 11,038.65 

July 5,123.06 12,278.54 

August 5,144.66 10,441.52 

September 5,017.13 10,393.71 

October 4,510.52 12,350.35 

November 4,913.11 15,597.56 

December 2,225.51 12,591.98 

A file of 3-in. by 5-in. (7.6-cm. by 12.7-cm.) alphabet cards 
(Fig. 73) is kept of accounts charged off as uncollectible, which 







LIGHT 


POWER 


MDSE. 


CASH 


Jan. 


' 








Feb. 










Mar. 










Apr. 










May 










)un 










July 










AMg. 










Sept. 










Oft. 










Nov. 








Dec. 








Total 













I^G. 74— Back of Card for Delinquent Filf 



METEK READING, BILLING AND BILLS 



235 



furnishes quickly the following information : Name, address, 
amount, ledger folio, business, journal entry number, remarks. 
The reverse side is ruled so that an itemized account can be 
quickly entered (Fig. 74). 

During the year 1917 the company received many payments 
which are attributed to this card system. At the last of the 
month the new-business Ford is borrowed for a few days and 
a big drive on delinquents is made by the collection department. 

Delinquent letters are sent out as soon after the tenth as pos- 
sible to every delinquent account, and the delinquent list is kept 
up to the minute. 

NINETY PER CENT. COLLECTIONS BY TWENTIETH OF 

EACH MONTH 



Since the increase in postage the Indiana Raihvays & Light 
Company has been delivering the monthly bills to its 6000 



INDIANA RAILWAYS & LIGHT CO. 

UGHT ANP POWER DEPARTMENT 

Office Houra! 7:30 a. m. to 5 p. m. 
Open Saturday* and lOth of Month until 8K)0 p. m. 

1 12 E. Sycamore St. NoV. 30, 1917 Phone* 331-355 O 



Present Reading* 
La«t Reading* • . 
. K.W. H. Contumed. 



_perK.W.H.$. 



Let* Ic per ICW.H. on, until lOth. 

Net Bill for November 

Ls(* Unread Meter Minimum • • • . 

) Light ( 

"°P"**] Appliance f ^■'"=« ' * - 



Total Amount Due 



J* All claims for adjustment mu»t be made by the fifth, -o 

All bills payable on or before the tenth. Positively no • 

> discounts allowed after that date. We have no collec- 3 

J5 tors. Failure to receive bill does not eotitle the con- 3 

sumer to exception to this rule. m 



November 30, 1917 



Fig, 75 — Monthly Bill Form Used by Middle West Company 



236 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



creditors in Kokomo on the first of the month by meter readers 
at a cost of approximately $35 per month, or, roughly, half a 
cent per bill. Bills are in card form, see Fig. 75, the cards 
measuring 3^/4 in. by 5^/^ in. (8.25 cm. by 14 cm.). The back of 
the card is used for timely advertisements. A discount of 1 cent 
per kilowatt-hour is allowed for payment before the tenth, and 
it is noticed that approximately 80 per cent of accounts take ad- 
vantage of this. On the twentieth delinquency notices. Fig. 76, 
are mailed. Only one such notice is sent out by the company to 
a delinquent. 

Collections are as follows : Eighty per cent by tenth of month 



Form 215. 2in 12-17 



INDIANA RAILWAYS AND 
[I! UGHT COMPANY 




KOKOMO, INDIANA 



Light and Power Department 



No.. 



-191 



M- 



As the bill presented for electricity 
, 191 . , amounting to 



$ may have been lost in transit, mislaid or 

perhaps forgotten, we take the liberty of reminding you that the ten- 
day limit will expire ■ 191 , at 

12 o'clock, noon, after which date service will be discontinued without 
further notice. 

A charge of $1.00 is made for re-connecting. 

Respectfully, 
INDIANA RAILWAYS AND LIGHT CO. 

Our consumert will »ave at least one month's lighting bill in the course of a year if they will take ad- 
vantage of the discounts given by paying on or before the last day of the discount period. 



Fig. 76 — Delinquency Notice Mailed to Tardy Customers 

following period energy was used; additional 10 per cent by 
twentieth of same month ; additional 9 per cent by twentieth of 
following month — leaving approximately 1 per cent for discon- 
nection delinquents. As will be noticed, a charge is made by the 
company of $1.00 for re-connecting service after disconnection or 
for failure to pay in the proper time. 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 237 

METHOD USED TO DECREASE DELINQUENT 

ACCOUNTS 

Among the plans which are being developed to assist in hasten- 
ing customers' collections, those which are based on the reconnec- 
tion charge idea are said to be most effective. The accompanying 
form shows how this idea is applied by the Indiana General 
Service Company of Muncie. With this company all bills are 
due on the tenth of the month. After the tenth all delinquent 



INDIANA GENERAL SERVICE CO.- 

t)«te 



According to our records your ircoant showi t balance of t «hle<i hai doabtlcii 

ewapod your notice. Uidcsi remittance has been made jast prior to the receipt of this notice. «c asli 

that you give Mme your Immediate allcntloo. If payment In foH Is not made by noon of _— __ . 

ne shall, with regret, consider that you desire serrice discontlooed ond act accordingly. 

If service Is discontinued, it cannot be resumed uutil your account is paid In full to date, plus 
re-connection charge of ONE DOLLAR (tl.M) and also guarantee deposit Is made. 

Tnistiog your prompt attention will render action on our part unnecessary, «c tr*. 

Respectfully, 
Polio COU.ECnON DEPARTMENT. 




Fig. 77 — Type of Delinquent Notice that Gets Results 

accounts are taken off the books and notices like that in the 
illustration (Fig. 77) are sent out. It is this company's pol- 
icy to give the customer five days from the date of sending these 
notices to pay his bill. Service is then disconnected without 
further notice. After negotiations have reached this stage it is 
necessary for the delinquent customer to come to the office, settle 
his bill in full, pay $1 for reconnection and make a deposit to 
insure payment if he has not already established credit with the 
company. 

Notices of this type were used by the Indiana General Service 
Company for the first time in July, 1918. As a result Thomas 
F. English, general manager of the company, stated that a very 
material reduction was noticed in the number of delinquent ac- 
counts. 

TRADE ACCEPTANCE HELPS BUSINESS 

In the latter part of 1917 the Columbus (Ohio) Railway, 
Power & Light Company discontinued the sale of electrical appli- 
ances and the wiring of old houses on the partial-payment plan. 



238 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

The matter was considered for a month or six weeks, and at that 
time it was decided to continue as before, but finally the condi- 
tion became such that the management issued an order to stop 
such sales, and this order was immediately put into effect. 

As a real new-business department does not enjoy having 
its means of doing business eliminated, Mr. W. A. Wolls, new- 
business manager, said before the commercial men of the Ohio 
Electric Light Association, his department at once set about to 
find ways and means whereby it could again produce business for 
the company. Upon investigation it was found that the trade- 
acceptance plan of financing would meet the requirements. In- 
asmuch as the company enjoyed the best of co-operation with the 
electrical jobbers and contractors, a plan for the wiring of old 
houses was submitted to them whereby the company would give 
to the contractor a contract to wire a house and on completion 
of the work would present his bill to the company with a trade 
.acceptance attached ready for the signature of an authorized 
officer of the company. This trade acceptance would be returned 
to the contractor. The trade acceptance is made payable in 
120 days. The contractor discounts the trade acceptance with 
his bank at the rate of 6 per cent per annum, whereas formerly 
the company would discount all bills at 2 per cent for cash. 
The contractor's revenue for the work done is exactly the same 
as it was before the use of the trade acceptance. This plan has 
been in successful operation for the last two months. 

In regard to the sale of electrical appliances on the partial- 
payment plan, the company, Mr. Wolls stated, formerly sold 
appliances on the basis of 10 per cent down and the balance in 
ten equal monthly installments. The company has now arranged 
with the customer a new basis of approximately 25 per cent 
down and the balance in six equal monthly payments ; and with 
the manufacturers of the larger appliances, such as washing and 
ironing machines and vacuum cleaners, a basis whereby they 
accept in payment trade acceptances payable one-third in 60 
days, the balance in 90 and 120 days. 

Under the foregoing arrangement the wiring of houses and 
the sale of appliances is done on the basis of 50 per cent, financed 
by the electrical contractor and the manufacturers of appliances 
and 50 per cent by the company. This plan, Mr. Wolls states, 
was a wartime necessity. 



METER READING, BILLING AND BILLS 239 



THE DIFFICULTY IN HANDLING APPLIANCE PAY- 
MENTS OVERCOME 

Trouble has been found by cashiers of utility companies in 
taking care of payments on account for special compaigns where 
these payments were included with the regular bill for meter 
service. In order to eliminate this difficulty, the Rochester (N. 
Y.) Railway & Light Company, in one of its special appliance 
campaigns recently, issued a special colored coupon which is at- 
tached to the regular monthly bill of any person who bought 
one of the appliances in that campaign. When the customer 
pays his bill for service and also for the appliance the cashier 
stamps both bills paid in one operation, tears off the special 
colored slip and places it on a separate file. 



SECTION V 
COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 

STOP FLAT-RATE SERVICE TO PREVENT ENERGY 

WASTE 

On April 1, 1918, the Worcester (Mass.) Electric Light Com- 
pany discontinued flat-rate service on its system, about 900 cus- 
tomers going over to the metered basis. All of these were resi- 
dence customers, the commercial flat-rate services to stores and 
other business establishments having been done away with sev- 
eral months before. Practically no complaint was received from 
the residence customers, whose monthly bills on the flat-rate plan 
ranged in general from $1 to $3. The company announced the 
change when it mailed its February bills, each bill carrying a 1%- 
in. by 5^/^-in. yellow sticker as reproduced in Fig. 78. 



ALL FLAT-RATE CONTRACTS WILL BE 
DISCONTINUED APRIL 1, 1918 

We will install a meter for you and charge you 
in future for our service at our regular lighting 
jrates. Some meters will be installed before April 1 
to enable us to complete all changes as near that 
date as possible. Should your meter be installed 
earlier we will gladly rebate any amount you may 
have paid in advance for your service. 
Yours truly, 
WORCESTER ELECTRIC LIGHT COMPANY 
March 1, 1918 11 Foster Street 



Fig. 78 — Notice of Discontinuance of Flat Rate 

• To the local press representatives officials of the company ex- 
plained that under the old flat-rate plan considerable energy was 
being wasted. War conditions demand the elimination of all 
unnecessary waste, and the anticipated uncertainties of the fuel 
situation later in the year require the utmost economy in the util- 
ization of electricity. The company also wished to do away with 
the maintenance of current-limiting equipment used in connec- 

240 



COMMERCIAL DEPAKTMENT 241 

tion with flat-rate installations. Then, too, a good deal of time 
and trouble had been experienced in connection with trips to 
homes to sign up new contracts for small increases in connected 
load. The time of year was favorable to the change, with a de- 
creasing consumption of energy for lighting purposes. The flat 
rates were inaugurated about six years ago, when the company's 
residential lighting rate was about 12 cents per kilowatt-hour, 
while the present rate is 8 cents. The flat-rate plan was based on 
a charge of 1 cent per watt connected per month. 

In order to make the change as easily as possible, customers 
were informed that if a meter should be installed during the 
months before the first of April customers desiring to go over to 
metered service then and there would be allowed to do so ; but if 
any one wished to retain his flat-rate service until April 1, the 
reading of the meter on that date and not on the date of setting 
would mark the beginning of the new system of charging. In 
many cases the change to the metered rate was accepted on the 
spot, the public taking the company's explanation without objec- 
tion. Data are not in hand at this writing as to the total effect, 
but it is known that many customers ' bills will be no larger under 
the metered rate than on the flat rate. 

FLAT-RATE CUSTOMERS CHANGED TO METER BASIS 

Not only must strict economy be practiced to-day in every 
branch of utility operation but strict attention should be given 
to average rates for individual services to make sure that the 
income of the utility is as large as it ought to be. In this class 
falls the flat-rate customer. W. J. Aicklen, Jr., general manager 
of the Consumers' Electric Light & Power Company of New Or- 
leans, La., has been checking up the income from flat-rate cus- 
tomers and has found that by changing over to meter service the 
average revenue for this class of customer can be considerably 
increased. These flat-rate customers are all connected through 
load-limiting devices. 

A campaign for this class of business was started in the early 
part of 1913, and through wiring campaigns, etc., about 900 such 
customers were connected to the company 's lines. 

In the course of this campaign contracts were made with bar- 
ber shops, saloons, pressing shops, residences, etc., all at the rate 



242 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

of 1 cent per connected watt, but after a little experience it was 
found that this did not pay, when compared with the regular 
rates. Consequently the rates for places of business were raised 
from iy2 cents per connected watt for pressing shops to 2 and 2^/^ 
cents per watt for saloons. 

It was afterward found that even at these increased rates the 
company was often losing money, when compared with the retail 
lighting rates. These losses were not only due to the use of en- 
ergy purchased by the customer for lighting with "mazda" 
lamps, but were also caused by the temptation that existed for the 
customer to use an electric fan without the knowledge of the 
company. 

The company has had as many as twenty-five cases where the 
load limiter was practically destroyed through the customer 
using an electric iron or a toaster on a limiter with a capacity of 
only 100 watts. In fact, the average class of customer supplied 
on the flat-rate basis was found to be rather poor, and it was for 
this reason that there was so much of a tendency by customers to 
overstep the terms of their agreement with the company. 

On tests made for this class of business, and in different locali- 
ties, the company found that in a pressing shop paying $1.50 per 
month for 100 watts connected 34 kw.-hr. was used, which at the 
regular meter rate would amount to $2.24. At a grocery with 
a load of 200 watts and paying $2 per month it was found that 45 
kw-hr. was used in a month, which would amount to $2.90 per 
month at the regular rate. For a rooming house which was pay- 
ing $4 per month for 400 watts connected a consumption of 76 
kw.-hr. per month was found, which would amount to $4.50 per 
month at the regular retail rate. At another rooming house that 
was paying $2.60 per month for 260 watts connected was found 
a consumption of 49 kw.-hr. per month, which would amount to 
$3.10 at the regular rate. 

It was such experiences as these that led the company to decide 
in 1915 that it would discontinue the installation of load-limiting 
devices for any new customers and that it would replace them 
with meters wherever there was an opportunity. For instance, 
if a customer moved from one address to another the company 
would refuse to move the limiter and would insist on a regular 
meter being installed. If the customer went out of business and 
was succeeded by another, the company refused to let the new 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 243 

customer have the excess indicator, insistin^f on installing a re<?- 
ular meter. This method reduced the number of load limiters to 
approximateh' 500 by the middle of 1918. 

"As the load-limiter consumption has always been an uncer- 
tain quantity, ' ' Mr. Aicklen states, ' ' and as it forms a large fac- 
tor of uncertainty in the calculation of line losses, distribution 
losses, etc., the consideration of this, in addition to the facts that 
we had already learned regarding- this class of business, caused us 
to decide to discontinue entirely all load limiters. 

"As all these flat-rate contracts are written up on the yearly 
basis with a self-renewal clause, it was very easy to reclassify 
them into twelve monthly divisions, and to notify each division 
monthly of the expiration of their contracts, which were to be 
replaced on a meter basis or to be discontinued entirely. 

"We have found that we have lost practically no business by 
this method, and even though we may not have so large a revenue 
on the meter basis, we will feel better in knowing that we are 
being paid for every kilowatt-hour sent out, and in creating so 
much larger a field for the exploitation of electrical appliances, 
as we have, of course, been restricted from selling any appliance 
to these flat-rate customers in the past." 

SURCHARGE METHOD USEFUL 

In several small cities of the Central AVest served by one com- 
pany the top step of the rate for electric service was 15 cents. 
In spite of this apparently high price which the company was 
getting it was not able to make money enough to pay its operat- 
ing expenses and was faced with the necessity of shutting down 
its plant or increasing the price it knew was already high. Real- 
izing that electricity at 20 cents a kilowatt-hour can hardly com- 
pete with gasoline or kerosene lighting, the company decided to 
let its base rate remain at 15 cents per kilowatt-hour and add a 
surcharge of 5 cents per kilowatt-hour. While this plan in 
effect increases the rate per kilowatt-hour to 20 cents, it also 
holds out hope to the customers of the company that the in- 
crease is of a temporary nature. The result is that the rate 
increase has gone into effect and not many customers have asked 
to have their service discontinued. The manager of the prop- 
erty is certain that if a straight increase in rates to 20 cents per 



244 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

kilowatt-hour had been made effective, the curtailment of service 
would have been quite disastrous. 



CHANGING A POWER CONTRACT TO OBTAIN 
GREATER PROFIT 

Power for the operation of the Northern Massachusetts Street 
Railway, serving the Athol-Gardner district of the State, has 
been furnished by the Athol Gas & Electric Company since 1912. 
At that time a contract was entered into by which the central 
station agreed to furnish power measured as direct current at 
the rate of 1.8 cents per kilowatt-hour and to assume all con- 
verting and machine losses. Under the terms of the contract it 
was necessary for the railway company to build and maintain a 
three-phase high-tension transmission line from Westminster to 
the Athol fair grounds, costing about $36,000. On the basis of 
an annual consumption of 3,000,000 kw.-hr., the interest charge 
on this investment amounted to $1,800 (at 5 per cent) or 0.06 
cent per kilowatt-hour, to which was added the interest and de- 
preciation on the company's steam plants, held in reserve, 
amounting to 0.8 cent per kilowatt-hour, and thus making the 
total cost of power to the railway company 2.66 cents. A further 
condition of the contract was that the railway company should 
maintain the high-tension line in good condition, but little work 
had to be done on this in the early years of the contract. 

Owing to the fact that the load factor was at times much below 
normal and that the machine loss was large in the substation in- 
stallation, the central station found itself unable to furnish 
power under this contract during certain hours at a profit. The 
railway claimed also that the service did not attain a standard 
which would enable it to maintain its schedules at all times. In 
1916, when the original contract had eleven years more to run, 
the Northern Massachusetts company and the Athol company en- 
tered into a new contract, extending to 1927, upon a basis which 
would allow a larger profit to the central station and thus give it 
the incentive to furnish an improved power supply. As the re- 
sult of this new arrangement the former troubles have been elim- 
inated and the power supply is now continuous and satisfactory 
to the managers of the railway. 

Under the new contract the cost of power to the road (which 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 245 

has about 31 miles of track), less a discount for payment of bills 
witliin fifteen daj^s, is fixed at 1.84 cents per kilowatt-hour, and 
the energy is measured as alternating current. The railway as- 
sumes all converting and machine losses. These amount to at 
least 20 per cent in the case of this road, or 0.36 cent per kilo- 
watt-hour. Adding interest and depreciation on the cost of the 
railway company's stand-by steam equipment increases the cost 
0.8 cent per kilowatt-hour, making the total cost to the railway 
3 cents. The central station took over the transmission line at 
a cost of $36,000 in making the new contract. The Athol com- 
pany purchased part of its energy from the New England Power 
Company at about 1.1 cents per kilowatt-hour and resold as above 
outlined. 

LIMITATIONS ON FREE SERVICES 

In speaking of the war-time practice of the Commonwealth 
Edison Company in regard to gratuitous service before a recent 
meeting of the A. I. E. E., D. W. Roper, superintendent of the 
street department of the company, said: 

In the most prosperous times if there was any trouble with a cus- 
tomer's lamps or motors the company would, on request, send its 
troubleman to tlie customer's premises. If the interruption to the 
lamps was caused by some minor defect in the wiring or in the appli- 
ances, or the sockets of plugs or switches, the repair man would, if he 
could do it in half an hour or so, make the repairs sometimes tem- 
porarily, but he would make the repairs so as to enable the customer to 
get service. He would then advise the customer what to do in the 
way of making permanent repairs. Nowadays the company makes a 
minimum charge of 35 cents for sending a repair man to the customer's 
premises. If the trouble is found on the customer's premises and does 
not have to do with the company's part of the system, the charge is 
considered valid. In addition, a further charge is made for any time 
over the first fifteen minutes which the man spends on the customer's 
premises. This practice applies also to heat-device calls in apartment 
buildings. 

There formerly was a sort of a perpetual guarantee on cords for elec- 
tric flatirons. The practice now is to charge the customer for the cost 
of the repair. The charge is 75 cents for replacing an electric-iron 
cord. This applies also to other heating devices. 

Incandescent lamps for a number of years have been delivered free. 
The company's rates, of course, require that the lamps shall be fur- 



246 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

nished free, but they do not require that they shall be delivered. It is 
probable that witliin the next few weeks the company will make a 
charge for the delivery of lamps similar to the charge now made in an- 
swering a trouble call. It will, of course, be possible, even under the 
new arrangement, for the customer to get his lamps free by applying 
for them at one of the numerous delivery stations in the various parts 
of the city. 

FREE RENEWAL OF FUSES DISCONTINUED 

The Harrisburg (Pa.) Lio'ht & Power Company has recently 
adopted a new policy in connection with the distribution or re- 
newal fuse plugs. It had been the practice of the company to 
renew fuse plug burn-outs without charging. This free renewal 
has been discontinued. Moreover, where it is necessary for the 
company's troubleman to visit the customer's residence for the 
purpose of installing fuse plugs, a service charge of 40 cents is 
made to cover the visit and the installation of one fuse with a 
charge of 10 cents for each additional fuse installed. Fuses 
called for at the office by consumers are now sold for 10 cents 
each, instead of 5 cents, as before. 

This innovation has had an immediate effect in reducing the 
number of trouble calls for fuse installation, while the revenue 
derived from the necessary calls which, are still being made, 
and paid for, is taking care of the troubleman 's time and putting 
him on a self-supporting basis. Special pains are being taken to 
instruct the consumers how to install fuse plugs in order that 
they may take care of their own burn-outs, and it is believed 
that it will not be long before most Harrisburg householders will 
provide themselves with extra fuses so as to be prepared to take 
care of any trouble which may develop. There will then be no 
call on the utility to send a man when it is simply a case of un- 
screwing a burned-out fuse and putting in a new one. 

REDUCTION OF LAMP RENEWALS RESULTS 

The Houston (Tex.) Lighting & Power Company last fall in- 
augurated a campaign of education for the purpose of reducing 
the annual burden of lamp renewal expense and has been so suc- 
cessful that already a very large saving has been effected. Of 
course the Houston public has read as much about the "mazda" 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 247 

lamp as the people of any other city, but the company had been 
granting free renewals on "gem" lamps and a large number of 
consumers had continued to burn these lamps. 

The great popular interest in coal conservation and other war- 
time savings, however, suggested the possibility of a special cam- 
paign for "mazda" lamps that would call attention to the waste- 
fulness of the less efficient incandescent lamps and secure the 
general adoption of "mazda" lamps. 

H. 0. Clarke, commercial manager, in commenting on the cam- 
paign, says : 

The pohcy of free lamp renewals carried out by a great number of 
large central stations is to-daj'^ merely the inheritance of a mistaken 
and misguided policy of the past, and in the central-station game a 
precedent once set and established becomes a rule which it is hard to 
change, especially so in the furnishing of free renewals. A great many 
people believe that the abolishment of a practice which gives them some- 
thing free is simply an effort on the part of the central station to make 
for itself additional money and to take from the customer a service to 
which he is entitled. Selling the idea to the public of the advantage of 
purchasing a high-grade lamp rather than accepting free an inferior 
lamp is really the basis of a campaign to reduce lamp renewals. To 
aid us in driving home the thought we have hit upon the plan here in 
Houston of using a counter display rack, which consists of two com- 
partments, in one of which is placed a "mazda" lamp and in the other 
a free-renewal lamp or exchange lamp. The two compartments are con- 
nected separately, each to a meter, and the meter dials are calibrated 
to read in dollars and cents. 

When a customer comes into our office the first thing we do is to take 
him to this display box and show exactly why we can afford to give 
away an exchange lamp. At the same time we show him a comparison 
of the color values of the lamps, and we follow this with war-time 
arguments, appealing to the patriotism of the customer on the basis of 
fuel conservation. The dials assist us in showing that the fuel con- 
sumption necessary^ to serve the "gem" lamp is twice that required to 
serve an equivalent candle-power of "mazda" lamp. 

The work has been very effective, and we expect that we shall be 
able to reduce our free lamp renewals to the value of $400 for the 
entire year. We do not expect to have to furnish a single free lamp in 
1919. When one stops to consider that in the short period of time since 
"mazda" lamps came in we have been able to reduce our free lamp re- 
newals from $7,000 to $400 per year— and in 1919 we hope to reduce 
them to nothing per year— it will be agreed that our educational work 



248 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

along this line has been most effective. Last year our total cost was 
$1,646.40. 

We have not done any advertising in this campaign, nor have we 
announced any policy of abolishment of free lamp renewals, and our 
results are attributed solely to untiring personal efforts in educating 
and appealing to the patriotic sense of the customer. 

DISCONTINUE LAMP SERVICE 

On July 1, 1918, New York Edison Company and United 
Electric Light & Power Company, supplying New York City and 
the Bronx, discontinued the practice of furnishing incandescent 
lamps under the lamp-service contract which includes the fur- 
nishing of the first installation and subsequent renewals of 50- 
watt lamps and larger at a monthly charge of ^/^ cent per kilo- 



LAMP ORDER 



THE UNITED ELECTRIC LIGHT & POWER CO. 
«30 EAST ISTM STREET. NEW YORK 



PLCASI DELIVER ' 



.CLCAR 1 SO WATT STANDARD MNTRAk 
..FR09TCD) STATION MAZDA LAMPS 



OTHER SIZES. 



AS PER PUBLISHED PRICES. FOR USE ON PREMISES NOTED aEbOW. 

BEST TIME, TO CALL 

. NAME ... . .— 



Fig. 79 — Form of Lamp Order for Customers' Use Adopted by the New 

York Edison Company 

watt-hour consumed. From now on the two companies will 
supply lamps to customers only at the standard list prices, but in 
supplying these lamps will maintain an adequate delivery service 
in addition to counter service. Moreover, facilities were af- 
forded to customers so desiring to purchase their initial equip- 
ment of lamps on a deferred-payment plan, full payment to be 
made in six equal monthly installments to be added to the light- 
ing bill. 

There were several reasons for discontinuing the lamp-service 
arrangement other than excessive cost. First, the service was 
not altogether satisfactory to the consumer, owing largely it was 
felt to the inability of a consumer thoroughly to understand the 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 249 

arrangement; second, it was somewhat unfair to the consumers 
using heating and other appliances to be charged for lamp service 
on the basis of the entire energy used when a considerable por- 
tion of that energy was used for other than lighting ; and third, 
the addition of 10 per cent at the first of the year to the stand- 
ard price of lamps was a greatly added burden to the companies, 
which distributed annually in the neighborhood of $1,000,000 
worth of lamps and which would have required considerable ad- 
vance in the lamp-service contract. Even an advance to 1 cent 
a kilowatt-hour would not have taken care of all of the addi- 
tional charges, it is understood, and therefore the service has been 
discontinued. 

The companies have standardized on the 50-watt lamp and by 
making it easier for the customer to purchase 50-watt lamps than 
other lamps hope to maintain the average lighting wattage. 

Customers have been furnished with return post cards on 
which they may place their order. One of these is here shown, 
and as will be noted, b}' using this card it is much easier to 
purchase the 50-watt lamp than any other size. In notifying 
the customers of this change, a circular was sent out which gave 
also the prices at which lamps would be sold. A 10 per cent 
discount is allowed to purchasers of standard package quantities. 

The company has taken the stand that it will not permit cus- 
tomers to receive discounts on yearly purchase of lamps for de- 
liveries at specified intervals throughout the year. Discounts 
will be given only on purchases as made. In this way the com- 
pany relinquishes a considerable amount of business to the local 
dealer in lamps. 

NO FREE RENEWALS FOR SMASHED LAMP BULBS 

The Edison Electric Illuminating Company of Boston, which 
has been very liberal in regard to broken and lost lamps, has 
found that present-day conditions have made certain economies 
necessary, among them being a change in lamp policy outlined 
in a notice sent to customers which stated that on and after Feb. 
15, 1918, a charge would be made for lamps replaced where the 
glass is broken. This does not change the renewal service fur- 
nished by the company, but places the burden of careless and ex- 
cessive breakage on the customer, 



250 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

The handling of broken lamps under the new rule has been in 
effect now for more than two months with remarkable success, 
the company states, and is operating with notable smoothness. 
The customers seem to appreciate that property furnished for 
their use by the company must be properly handled and receive 
due care in order to prevent its unnecessary destruction. 



STOPS FREE DELIVERY OF LAMPS 

The Commonwealth Edison Company of Chicago, which in- 
cludes free lamp renewal as a part of its service, stopped gra- 
tuitous distribution of the lamps January, 1918. At customers' 
requests lamps were formerly delivered free of charge anywhere 
in the city. Under the present arrangement when a customer 
calls at the lamp service bureau the clerk states that the com- 
pany has, for the convenience of its customers, established lamp 
service stations in various parts of the city and gives the person 
who calls the address of the nearest station. The customer is 
also told that there is a complete stock of lamps at this station 
and that an attendant there will help him select the proper sizes 
of lamps. For those who do not wish to call at the stations for 
lamps the company still maintains a delivery service, for which 
it charges 35 cents per call. 

The lamp renewal stations, of which the company now has 
twelve, usually occupy space in stores that are already estab- 
lished. This number of stations will probably need to be in- 
creased. In selecting these stores it was suggested that real- 
estate agencies might be desirable concerns to carry the lamps 
since they have to maintain stores and have nothing in the way 
of stock to occupy their windows. On reconsideration, however, 
it was decided that the most desirable locations for the lamp re- 
newal stores were places of business which had something to gain 
by having electric service customers call for lamps. The twelve 
agencies are located as follows: One printer's store, one electric 
fixture store, one building formerly vacant, three hardware 
stores, two drug stores and four buildings already partly occu- 
pied by the company. This arrangement gives one store to each 
zone of 2^/4 miles to 3 miles (4 km. to 4.8 km.) in the city. 

An analysis of 1000 calls for lamps made just after the new 
system was installed showed that about 10 per cent of the custom- 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 251 

ers would rather pay the 35 cents charge than call for lamps in 
person. This ratio is expected to decrease, however, as familiar- 
ity with the system increases. 

FIXTURES FORMERLY RENTED NOW SOLD OUTRIGHT 

A few years ago the commercial department of the New Or- 
leans (La.) Railway & Light Company instituted a practice of 
installing high candlepower ''mazda" fixtures on a rental basis, 
the object being to discontinue arc-lamp service. In all about 
1500 of these lighting fixtures, or "pendants," as they were 
called, were put out, and up to within a few months ago the 
monthly rental produced a very satisfactory revenue over the 
operating expense. The influence of the war, however, has upset 
these conditions and increased the cost of maintenance until it 
practically balances the revenue. It has been decided therefore 
to discontinue the rental of ''mazda" fixtures, but to continue 
the furnishing of them on a straight sale basis. 

Customers were called upon to purchase outright the fixtures 
then in use on a rental basis, and this turnover brought in a 
considerable amount of money and a large margin of profit. 
Some of the fixtures had been in service for several years, though 
they were in perfect condition, and the price on the present 
basis of cost was well in advance of the original cost thereof. 
There was very little difficulty experienced in taking care of 
this change-over, for the fixtures were giving entire satisfaction, 
and it was by far more expensive for the customer to give them 
up and purchase something else. 

A CHARGE FOR RECONNECTION FAVORED 

Among central stations of the Middle West there is a growing 
tendency to enforce more strictly rules concerning a charge for 
reconnecting a customer's service when it has been disconnected 
for non-payment or other causes. The general policy seems to 
be to make a charge of $1 for this reconnection. There are some 
managers, however, who favor increasing this amount to $2. 
Strict enforcement of this rule is said to do much to cut down 
unnecessary labor charges incident to disconnecting in order to 
collect money and reconnecting after payment has been made. 



252 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

A firm policy on this matter has the further advantage of making 
collections easier and payments more prompt. This latter fea- 
ture is considered important under prevailing financial condi- 
tions. 

Among those who favor the two-dollar charge are some who 
have many customers that ask for disconnection during the sum- 
mer months while they are away from their city residences. It 
is figured that if the company has its investment in lines, trans- 
formers and meters for these customers idle during the summer 
months, more than a reconnection charge of $1 should be made 
for the periodic discontinuance of service. 

SIZE OF WATT-HOUR METER 

According to a discussion on meters at the recent convention 
of the Minnesota Electrical Association, there is a very decided 
tendency toward the installation of meters of smaller sizes. 
Where there is any question about the size of meter to install 
some central-station companies are using small-size meters, leav- 
ing it to the new-business department to obtain as large a load 
as it can. This practice has led to practically no trouble. In 
Minneapolis 95 per cent of the meters installed are of the 5-amp. 
type. Even for electric ranges, meters of the 15-amp. variety 
are used there. It is never desirable to install a meter of higher 
rating than is necessary to register the load efficiently and eco- 
nomically. Putting in too large a meter not only increases the 
investment in meters but also results in a large loss of revenue 
owing to light-load inaccuracy. 

In general, when installing a meter the class of service must be 
considered. What applies to one customer does not necessarily 
apply to another. For example, in churches, stores, lodge halls, 
saloons, etc., the total connected load is nearly always used and 
a meter rated at 80 per cent of that load should be installed. 
For electric signs and like loads meters rated for the total con- 
nected load should be installed. In residences only a few lamps 
are used at one time, as a general rule, and they are usually not 
of large size. Occasionally during some special functions the 
total connected load will be used. At such times a small meter 
would have to carry considerable overload. However, most of 
the modern meters will carry 200 to 300 per cent overload with- 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 



25.S 



out danger of damage to the meter and will carry -iOO per cent 
for a few minutes. The meter will operate slow on overload 
owing to the fact that the series-coil laminations are oversat- 
urated. However, the infrequent loss resulting from overload 
will be compensated for by the increased activity of the meter 
on small loads of one or two lamps. Hence it is always advisable 
to install a meter having a rating equal to 25 per cent to 50 
per cent of the total load in a residence. 

The same rule also applies to power customers having many 
small motors or one large motor. It is always advisable to install 
a meter with 60 per cent to 75 per cent of the rating of small 
individual drives and 75 per cent to 100 per cent for a large 
single motor. Experience has proved that this is the best prac- 
tice except with motors operating elevators and cranes which are 
started and stopped frequently. These motors draw large start- 
ing current, so the best practice is to use a meter with 100 per 
cent to 125 per cent of the rating of the connected load. 

CARD CONTRACT COVERING LIGHT AND POWER 

SERVICE 

A simple form of card contract (Fig. 80) is used by the South- 
ern Canada Power Company, Ltd., Montreal, Que. The card 
measures 8 in. by 5 in., and on the reverse side it has the same 
contract except that it is in the French language, because of the 
large French population. 



Name 

No Address Date 

To The SOUTHERN CANADA POWER Co. Limited 

OpertiiiiK , 

Please connect the preniis.s at lo your ELECTIC LIGHTING 

service subject to your rules and regiilaiions •» ado|>Kd froui lime lo time (or wliidi jcrvice I »%\tf 
to piy monthly at yonr Office at the following Rate 

Snbject to a minimum monthly ptymeot o( j^,"- dollars ($ , 

Meter rent per month. Subject to a discount for prompt pa>nieiit o( 1 

i( paid wiihin discount period. ' % 

This agreement to be effective for one year from above date and to continue in effect thereafter nntil 
notice in wrilinR of 30 day» shall be given for the discounef lion of the service. 



WilHttt 



Applicant 



'the forgoing is sfgned by the applicant after reading and receiving a copy of same, and is flil'ject lo 
rtie Company's accrptaitre by letter addressed lo con>umcrs wilhiii thirty days acceptance may aho 
be nude by making connection al llie point of delivery. 

RrCfived from the snin of dollars (S ) 

or Inter nf security No as Rii»ri>rii-e for Hie fnlfilmenl of above applicatiin Jicli 

giiarmitee to be returned »btn the >ervice roiercrt by ilii> appliciition isdisconiinnid 



Householder ? ■ 



Id Ih SMIIIIII CIIIOI roaii (< |.< 



Fig. 80 — Card Contract Used by Montreal Company 



254 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

The average contract used by light and power companies is 
crowded with numerous regulations legally phrased and which 
not infrequently serve to frighten the prospective customer, 
especially if he be a householder. In addition, as has frequently 
been shown, such contracts do not lend themselves readily to con- 
venient filing. With this Canadian company the regulations are 
kept on file and are available whenever required, while the card, 
satisfying all practical purposes, is filed with others of its kind. 

The card when filed constitutes an option on the customer's 
business for a period of thirty days. Besides, it acts as a deposit 
form. A copy is retained by the customer. 

APPLIANCE SALES COMMISSION FUND FOR THE 

SALESPEOPLE 

To give an added impulse to appliance sales in 1918, the Poto- 
mac Electric Power Company of Washington, D. C, placed aside 
a 5 per cent commission on everything sold out of the electric 
shop which is paid into a monthly fund and distributed to the 
members of the sales department. This distribution is made by 
equal division ; that is, if the profit for the month is $250 and 
there are ten salesmen on the staff, each one receives a check for 
$25. It is found that this is aiding materially in the develop- 
ment of an organization spirit because of which the men are co- 
operating eagerly and "tipping each other off" to opportunities 
discovered outside the discoverer's own territory. 

INSTALLMENT PERIOD ON RANGE CUT 

The plan under which the Pacific Gas & Electric Company of 
San Francisco formerly sold electric ranges called for 10 per cent 
cash and the remainder in twelve monthly payments. The com- 
pany paid the installation cost, which was figured to amount to 
$50, and this amount was allowed on all ranges installed on the 
company's lines whether sold by the company or by outside agen- 
cies. If the customer desired to pay cash for the range, a dis- 
count of 10 per cent was allowed. 

Since the power situation in California has grown acute 
through the increase in the price of oil, abnormally low stored 
water supply and rapidly increasing demand for power, the 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 



255 



range policy has been revised so that it will no longer be a bur- 
den to the commercial department. The present plan is to sell 
at manufacturers' list less $20 per range, which is deducted as 
an allowance on cost of connection ; the average installation cost 
is about $50, or $60 including water heater. The terms of pay- 
ment are 25 per cent cash and the remainder in three monthly 
payments. If the customer desires to pay cash, a 5 per cent 
discount is allowed. The connection allowance of $20 is made 
only if the range is sold by the company. 

The rates remain the same as before (averaging slightly less 
than 4 cents per kilowatt-hour), and the same service to con- 
sumers will be continued. Under the new plan the cost to the 
consumer will be greater, but it is hoped that the electric range 
department will be self-sustaining. 



PEAK-LOAD RELIEF 

Equalization of the peak loads of customers in order that 
existing station capacity can be utilized more fully is of unusual 
importance at the present time. At the 1918 N. E. L. A. con- 
vention at Atlantic City, N. J., R. R. Young presented a paper 
telling how this plan was worked out and of the results obtained 
by the Public Service Electric Company of New Jersey. 

The territory of this company in so far as generation and dis- 
tribution is concerned is divided into two zones, designated as 
northern and southern zones, the southern zone comprising Tren- 
ton, Burlington and Camden with adjacent territory, the north- 

Results of Campaign to Equalize Customers' Peak Load 

Total 

K\v. 

Connected 

Load in 

Division Power 

Essex 73,000 

Hudson 40,000 

Passaic 20,000 

Central 41,500 

Bergen 9,700 



Total 184,200 

Southern Zone . . 23,900 





Promised 






Promised 


Per- 


Actual Relief 


Kw. 


centage 


Obtained 


Relief 


Relief 


Kw. 


Percentage 


4,360 


5.9 






5,245 


13.1 






1,852 


9.2 






3,909 


9.4 






1,050 


10.8 
8.9 






16,416 


10,000 


5.4 


2,931 


12.2 


1,500 


6.3 



Grand total 208,100 



19,347 



9.3 



11,500 



5.5 



256 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



ern zone comprising all north of and including New Brunswick 
and its adjacent territory. 

Late in the summer of 1917 the company found that it would 
be unable to start a 35,000-kw. turbine and a 12,5()0-kw. turbine 
which were under erection in two of the largest generating sta- 
tions. It was decided, therefore, that, beginning with November, 























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Fig. 81 — Peak-Load Distribution of New Jersey Electric Company; 
Northern Zone Above, Southern Zone Below 



a systematic canvass of power customers should be made, asking 
the co-operation of the manufacturers using 50 hp. and more in 
redistributing their load throughout the day so that heavy de- 
mands which ordinarily might occur between the hours of 4.30 
P. M. and 9 p. m. would be changed to some other hour during the 
twenty-four-hour day. 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 257 

Blueprints showing a typical twenty-four-liour composite load 
curve of the generating stations for December, 1916, were pre- 

REPORT ON REDUCTION OF PEAK 

Customer 

Business 

Address 

Town 

Substation from which customer is fed 

Connected load hp kw. 

Maximum demand kw. 

Demand 4 to 9 p.m kw. 

Promised relief at peak kw. 

Remarks: 
Interviewed by: 

Signed : 



pared for the power representatives and agents, and a mock inter- 
view was held to illustrate the methods to be used in presenting 
the case to the manufacturers. 

After the compam^'s organization had been thoroughly pre- 
pared, the men began about Nov. 1 to visit the power customers, 
the campaign continuing throughout the month of November. 
Report forms were prepared (Fig. 82) and results of calls on 
individual customers were reported daily, these reports being 
tabulated by the general office. Weekly meetings of the power 
representatives in the state were held to discuss difficulties en- 
countered and methods of overcoming objections. 

Inasmuch as the rate schedule includes no off-peak provisions, 
the only advantage the manufacturer was to derive was the 
possible reduction of his average demand, thus reducing his 
demand charge somewhat, besides giving him greater insurance 
against interruptions in service. 

The result of this campaign in promises from the customers is 
shown in the table. 

Owing to the fact that customers were probably not able fully 
to live up to their promises, and there being some diversity in 
the peak loads, it is estimated that the result of the off-peak 
canvass was the securing of approximately 10,000 kw. reduction 
in demand in the northern zone and 1500 kw. reduction in de- 



258 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



REPORT ON REDUCTION OF PEAK 

Customer 

Business ■. 

Address 

Town 



Substation from which customer is fed. 



Connected load hp kw. 

Maximum demand kw 

Demand 4 to 9 p.m kw 

Promised relief at peak kw. 



Remarks; 



Interviewed by: 



Signed: 



Fig. 82 — Report Forms for Calls on Customers 

mand in the southern zone. In fact, the maximum peak 
occurred in the last week in November in the northern zone, 
whereas, the peak of former years had been occurring in De- 
cember. 

Kilowatt-hours sold during November and December indicated 
that no curtailment of use resulted from reduction of peak. In 
other words, the maximum capacity required was reduced by 
11,500 kw. without reduction in output on the part of the manu- 
facturer. 

The daylight-saving law as now effective will not help the fall 
peak. If the period is extended to cover the entire year, the 
saving in necessary capacity by the central station will be con- 
siderable. 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 259 

FINANCING NEW TIE LINES 

Under present conditions, witli coal at a high level of prices 
and with winter-time deliveries of fuel very uncertain, many a 
company operating a small steam plant naturally feels that it 
would like to tie in with a neighboring large transmission com- 
pany if possible. By so doing it not only shifts the generating 
responsibility to another company which may have some water 
power, but it also may reduce somewhat its production cost and 
put off into the far future any possibility of expenditures for 
plant replacements. From the small plant's viewpoint intercon- 
nection at the present time has many advantages. 

When the tentative proposal to the transmission company is 
made, however, the difficulty of financing the tie line between the 
present transmission system and the small steam plant looms 
large. The large company is having trouble taking care of the 
financing of necessary war business and its own community. 
The transmission company would be glad to furnish the service at 
2.5 cents to 3 cents per kilowatt-hour, however, if the financial 
difficulty were not in the way. 

In the Northwest a number of companies are getting around 
their troubles in a common-sense sort of way. The small com- 
pany with the steam plant is financing the line and in turn is 
selling it to the transmission company, taking in payment the 
stock of the transmission company. This plan works well for 
several reasons. First, the small company can easily raise the 
money for the line in its own little community because its present 
security holders and the other investors in its town are in busi- 
nesses that are not greatly affected by war. They are accus- 
tomed to putting their income in banks or putting it back into 
their local business and are willing to divert it to a local utility 
enterprise at a fair price. So the small company can raise the 
money. Second, it appears a good stroke of business to take the 
large company 's stock in payment for the line because they get it 
at a price to yield around 8 per cent and are likely to come out 
handsomely on any advance in market value. This method is 
satisfactory to the large company particularly because it relieves 
it from the financial strain. It is usual practice for the small 
company to draw the specifications for the line it expects to build 
and then submit them to the engineers of the larger company for 



260 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

such revision as may be thought necessary to make them conform 
fairly well with the transmission company's standards of con- 
struction. The small company then does the actual building of 
the line. This has been found wise under present circumstances, 
for the small company can usually build the line at a great deal 
lower cost than the transmission company. At first it may seem 
paradoxical that the small company with less experience can 
build cheaper than a large concern with transmission specialists. 
It is true nevertheless. The difference in cost comes largely in 
the labor-camp and transportation expense. The small company 
can pick up labor in its own easy market and usually makes no 
special provision for housing and feeding the men. They know 
the community and shift for themselves. Farmers with teams 
do the hauling during lulls in farm work, and this keeps down 
transportation expense. 

This plan of providing service has, therefore, many advantages 
to both companies. It is being used to the mutual advantage of 
concerns in the Middle West and Northwest and is at the same 
time making for increased capacity in the small towns and for 
conservation of the nation 's fuel. 



METHODS OF FINANCING EXTENSIONS OF LINES 

Before a recent meeting of the commercial men of the Indiana 
Electric Light Association, R. Thurman of Muncie presented a 
comprehensive digest of plans used by various utility companies 
in the Central West for financing extensions under the present 
conditions. 

Owing to the high cost of materials and labor and to the fact 
that utilities probably will not be allowed to capitalize at this 
high figure, only absolutely essential additions will be made, Mr. 
Thurman pointed out. As to what is considered essential, this 
will vary with each utility and with every case presented. How- 
ever, there are in most cases different ways of taking care of 
lighting and power customers. A brief summary of a few of the 
different systems follows. 

In the standards of electrical service established by the Public 
Service Commission of Indiana, dated Jan. 2, 1918, Rule 31 pro- 
vides that each utility shall, upon request for service, make free 
of charge any line extension necessary to give this service, when 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 261 

the income for the first year from the prospective customer is 
equal to one-half the direct cost of the extension. If the cost of 
the extension is greater than the estimated income for the year, 
the customer is required to deposit the cost of the extension above 
the free limit. If other customers are taken on this extension, 
the original consumer is to receive a rebate of an amount equiva- 
lent to the cost of the free extension for each customer so taken. 

A number of companies are using this rule with reference to 
both light and power, particularly lighting consumers. In figur- 
ing the cost of the extension, the majority of utilities include 
the cost of material, cost of labor, including meter and meter 
installation, and to this add 10 per cent to cover cost of engineer- 
ing and superintendence. 

The Pacific Light & Power Company of Portland, Ore., uses 
the same method as given in Rule 31 (see Electrical World, Feb. 
9, 1918, page 311). 

Some companies are requiring the total amount of the cost of 
extension to be advanced by the consumer, especially the power 
consumers. This is returned to the customer in energy, in some 
cases the total amount of the bill being applied each month, in 
other cases from 25 per cent to 60 per cent of the bill. Other 
companies use a plan in which the total cost is advanced and an 
amount equivalent to the 1914 cost is returned in service. This 
applies in the majority of cases to large extensions for additional 
power consumers. This seems to the author to be a very good 
method of taking care of high-cost extensions, owing to the fact 
that it is probable the utility will not be allowed to capitalize the 
full amount expended on these extensions. 

One company at the present time is asking that the total cost 
be advanced and promises to return nothing. This applies only 
to lighting consumers. In this connection the question of how 
an extension made in this way can be capitalized arises. An- 
other plan is to set a limit for cost and then to ask the customer 
to pay any additional expenditures. This plan applies particu- 
larly to lighting consumers, and the amount set as a limit to be 
spent for each lighting customer varies from $20 to $50. The 
consumer is required to deposit in most cases any additional 
amount, which is returned to him in energy. Under the terms 
of still another system the prospective consumer is required to 
purchase preferred stock to the amount of the cost of the exten- 



262 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

sion. In most cases this preferred stock pays a dividend of 6 
per cent, which really amounts to borrowing the money from the 
consumer at that rate. This seems to the author to be one of 
the very best methods of taking care of extensions at the present 
time, owing to the fact that it not only secures the necessary cap- 
ital but also gives the customer an interest in the company. 

In securing data for this paper a circular letter was sent to 
each of the central-station members of the Indiana Electric Light 
Association asking for information regarding their method of 
taking care of extensions. Answers from seventeen central 
stations were received, which are classified as follows: 

For Lighting Customers: 

Xo extensions being made 5 

Xo advance required 5 

Extensions made according to commission Rule 31 3 

Total amount advanced by customer, nothing returned 1 

Customer required to buy preferred stock equivalent to cost of ex- 
tension 1 

For Power Extexsioxs: 

No extensions being made 5 

No advance required 4 

Advance required, but total amount returned in energ;^'^ 5 

Customers required to buy preferred stock equivalent to cost of ex- 
tension 1 

A number of the replies from central-station companies, 
especially the smaller ones, revealed the fact that they were hav- 
ing trouble with their customers in securing necessary cash to 
finance extensions. In some cases this had assumed such pro- 
portions that it was necessary absolutely to call off plans for ex- 
tensions of any kind, on account of prospective customers refus- 
ing to advance the money by any of the above methods. This, 
however, the author believed is because the applicants for service 
had not been educated up to a point where they understood that 
it was impossible at this time for a utility company to make an 
investment in anv other wav. 



FINANCING THE FARMERS' LINE 

Running north from Berrien Springs, Mich., through a rather 
thickly settled farming community, is a newly built 9-mile 
(14-km.) extension to the system of the Indiana & Michigan 
Electric Company of South Bend, Ind. The line serves farmers 



... COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 263 

only. It operates at 4400 volts, single-phase, and is constructed 
of 30-ft. (9-m.) wooden poles spaced on 150-ft. (45.7-m.) centers 
and carrying No. 6 copper wire. The line cost $11,800 and 
reaches 120 customers. To finance the line each farmer gave the 
company his promissory note for $102 before construction was 
started, with the understanding that the entire amount should be 
refunded in electrical energy at the rate of $1.50 per month. In 
all the company collected from the farmers $12,240, which it 
will have returned at this rate in about five and one-half years. 

The average customer on this line has a ten-room house, each 
room of which is wired for electric light. The average cost of 
wiring and fixtures complete, ready to turn on the energy, was 
$70 for a ten-room house. The average connected load in a ten- 
room house on this line is 600 watts. In connection with this 
lighting load there will be more than fifty motors of 1 hp. or less, 
which will be used for pumping purposes. In such cases where 
the motor rating does not exceed 1 hp. in capacity it is attached 
to the regular lighting meter and adds nothing to the monthly 
minimum charge. There will also be a number of motor connec- 
tions for units of larger capacity than 1 hp., and in such cases the 
motor will be put on 220 volts and a service charge of $1 per 
horsepower per month will be added to the energy charge. Prac- 
tically every farmer along the line has signified his intention of 
wiring his barn and garage, so the total lighting load will soon 
amount to about 700 watts per customer exclusive of the motors. 
The 120 customers will be served from thirty-five transformers, 
in some instances as many as five customers being served from 
one transformer. It is interesting in this connection to know 
that where a farmer has a tenant house on his farm he can make 
connection to this building without extra cost to him except the 
cost of wiring the building. 

The lighting rates charged on this installation are 11 cents per 
kilowatt-hour, with 1 cent discount, making 10 cents net with a 
$1.50 minimum charge per month. The average income for 
rural lines for residential lighting is approximately $150 per 
month, making an income on this line of approximately $2,160. 
When all appliances and stoves are on, as they will be within one 
year, the gross income will be approximately $3,500, which is 
approximately 30 per cent of the cost of the line. This, it is 
figured, will give the company the income it requires on the line. 



264 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

These rates and this financing plan do not include any provision 
for the long drop necessary to reach some farmhouses far back 
from the road. In the construction of the line the company 
allowed 300 ft. (91 m.) for each service connection. In case the 
customer's house was more than 300 ft. from the line, he was 
required to pay for all additional construction at the rate of 
$25 per 150-ft. span. The amount paid for this additional con- 
struction is considered as payment for a private line which is 
owned by the customer but maintained by the company. 

The company's viewpoint on the situation, as explained by 
M. F. Caldwell, manager of the new-business department, is given 
in the following paragraphs : 

''In serving the farmer life is made more pleasant for him, 
since electricity lessens his desire to go to the city in order that he 
may enjoy the city's luxuries. If the central station can meet 
these demands of the farmer, more food will be raised, and it 
takes food as well as bullets to win the war. Moreover, after the 
war there is likely to be a period of readjustment in some of the 
country's industries that will cause a reduction in demand by 
some of the central station 's power customers. With the farmer 
it is hardly expected that there will be such a period. The line 
which is built now will be paid for while the farmer is receiving 
top price for his goods and while it is easy to sell him electric 
service. Therefore, why not meet his demands now while he has 
the money and is willing to spend it? If he does not spend it 
for these improvements, he will spend it for something else which 
will perhaps do him less good, and the central station will lose 
an opportunity to get his business and to keep him satisfied on 
his farm raising food for the nation. 

''In cases where a careful survey shows that the line would 
give insufficient revenue to pay a reasonable profit on the invest- 
ment, the company believes that sufficient of the farmer 's deposit 
should be retained to reduce the investment to a figure which the 
revenue from the line will justify." 

CUSTOMERS TO PAY EXCESS OVER 1914 COST 

A new system of service charges has been adopted by the 
Alliance (Ohio) Gas & Power Company, effective Nov. 1, for 
residences and commercial loads of 5-kw. rating and less. This 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 265 

applies in any instance where tlie company is required to make 
an expenditure (1) for the installation or construction of ad- 
ditional or specific overhead lines on streets, alleys, highways, 
rear lot and side lot lines, including poles when necessary, and 
usual equipment, wire, lightning arresters, line switches, ground 
wires or connections, or for any work on existing polos wnth all 
of the attendant equipment for increasing the existing distribu- 
tion system or transmitting direct to the applicant's premises; 
(2) for transformers wherever installed, excepting only standard 
service transformers, and (3) for construction on applicants' 
premises exclusive of overhead service loops, meter and anj^ over- 
head or underground construction on rear or side lot lines as 
already described. 

The applicant is required to deposit with the company an 
amount equal to the estimated cost of the w^ork done upon the 
understanding that the work constructed shall remain the prop- 
erty of the company. However, a refund to the amount of the 
estimated cost of this work, except construction on applicants' 
premises, as of July, 1914 (called normal cost), will be made to 
the depositor at the rate of $20 for each customer's installation 
connected to this work within ten years. This refund shall not 
exceed the amount of the normal cost and shall not be payable 
unless written notice is given by the applicant to the company 
of the consumers ' installations connected to this work. No inter- 
est is allowed on the amount deposited. Furthermore, the com- 
pany has the right to refund at any time all or any part of the 
unrefunded portion of the normal cost of the work. 

Moreover, each additional customer on this line connected 
within ten 3'ears of original contract date shall pay one-tenth of 
the cost of this construction above the normal cost at the time 
of filing his application for service, which amount shall be re- 
funded to the original depositor until nine-tenths of this abnor- 
mal cost shall have been refunded, when such collections from 
applicants and refunds to depositors shall cease. 

The Alliance company is a Doherty property, and it was stated 
that other Doherty properties in Ohio would probably follow this 
method, which has received the approval of the Ohio Public 
Utilities Commission. 



266 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

FIXED PRICE ON SHORT EXTENSIONS 

The problem of line extensions during war times has in most 
instances been solved where long extensions were to be made. 
Short extensions, merely connecting a service on existing line, 
also require capital, and the expense involved may easily run into 
a good many hundreds of dollars in a short time. The Elmira 
(N. Y.) Water, Light & Railroad Company has found a way of 
obtaining the required money by applying a customer-financing 
method to even the small extensions. 

Each prospective customer is approached frankly and told of 
the conditions faced by the utility in war times and of the neces- 
sity for having financial assistance wherever extensions are re- 
quired. It is pointed out that utilities must refrain from issuing 
securities at the present time unless authorized to make an issue 
and that consequently funds are not available for line extensions. 
It is further shown that the increased costs of labor, materials, 
fuel, etc., have reduced the net income to such an extent that 
financial assistance must be had from prospective customers. 

However, the customer does not pay for the line but only lends 
the necessary money at 6 per cent for such time as the company 
needs it. The company guarantees to recall all of the outstand- 
ing certificates that it has issued and refund the total amount of 
the money that has been advanced with interest added. Care has 
been taken to impress upon all customers this fact that they are 
not buying or paying for the service, but are merely assisting the 
company in financing the purchase of the necessary material and 
labor. The company does not refuse to run any extensions, but 
points out to the customer that unless financial assistance is ren- 
dered the company will not be able to make the extension until 
some other way has been found to finance the proposition. 

Where it is necessary to extend the wires a distance of 300 
ft. to 500 ft. the company first finds out from the line department 
what the cost of these extensions will be. On ordinary service, 
however, where the secondaries run right up to the house the 
company has been asking the consumer to advance $11. This has 
been found to be about the average cost of service during the 
months of June and July. Prior to that time the cost was a trifle 
less, the increase being due to the gradual advance in the cost of 
material and labor. 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 



267 



Should a prospective customer point out that it is impossible 
for him to advance the cost of the extension, he is then asked to 
go to the bank and borrow the money, and this has been done in 
some instances. 

The Elmira company was wiring about 100 houses a month 
during 1918, and in each instance the customer was asked to 



ELMIRA Water, Light & Railroad Company 



Elmira. N.Y. 



ADDUM AU. ooMmnncAii 



1518. 



Bear Sir:> 

Wi ackaortede* «lth thsma, roc«lp» of yoor deposit 
of $ to \>» «5iplio4 on account ef the cost of coo- 
•tniction of extension to your property sltoated »t 



As soon u ruisccial conditions 



poxBlt of our BWltetinB secaritles at fcrorabla prices, w v.ill 
»ajce xjp tlw natter of our flnacclw: this construction. Md in 
tt» ovont of our anility to do »o. tho oathod to »o adopted u 
roolttiac to jon tho amount deposited <7ith us. U> the ncifltUM. 
tbla letter wU servo as a receipt for your payncnt ui orldenee 

Appr«cl.-tl;« your cooporotlon, ne ara 

ResTectfMlly yours, 

Ojncrsl Manager. 
llBjra tteter. Light i Billroad CccfiDJ. , 



Fig. 83 — Certificate of Receipt for Money Advanced by Customer 

assist in the service construction. Almost always he has ad- 
vanced the money. 

It was also found necessary to impress upon all employees 
the necessity for taking this step so that they can speak intelli- 
gently on the subject to any one. In addition, each of the elec- 
trical contractors in the city and surrounding counties has been 
notified what the company is doing so that no consumer will have 
his house wired without being absolutely familiar with the con- 
ditions of connection to the company's mains or secondaries. 



SERVICE-CHARGE FOR POWER LOADS 

A new customer's charge for commercial loads in excess of 5 
kw. capacity has been drawn up by the Alliance (Ohio) Gas & 



268 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

Power Company, effective Nov. 1. This applies in any instance 
where the company is required to make an expenditure (1) for 
the installation or construction of switching apparatus, for ad- 
ditional or specific switchgear, meters, instruments, panels, 
frames, control, cables and buses, connections and transformers, 
in switch houses or substations; (2) for additional or specific 
overhead lines, including poles or towers, with necessary and 
usual equipment, wire, lightning arresters, line switches, ground 
wires or connections, or for any work on existing poles or towers, 
with all the attendant equipment for increasing the distribution 
system or transmitting direct to the consumers' premises ; (3) for 
any transformers installed in switch houses, substations, line 
houses or other structures not otherwise specified, and (4) for 
service on customers' premises, for the installation of poles, 
power lines, ducts, cables, and also where the transformer 
capacity to be installed exceeds 50 kw. for the transformers and 
switching required and for special transformers of 50 kw. rating 
or less. 

The company contracts to supply a given amount of kilowatt 
line capacity to the premises in question, and this capacity the 
company agrees to hold and reserve for use of the applicant ten 
years from the commencing of supply, subject to federal, state, 
county, township or municipal regulation. 

How the Refund Is Worked Out. A deposit of the esti- 
mated cost of the work upon the understanding that the work 
shall be the property of the company is required. A refund will 
be made of the estimated cost of this work as of July 1, 1914 
(called the normal cost), (A) on the energy used by the applicant 
and taken from the line constructed as specified, and (B) in 
addition on the energy taken and used by other consumers con- 
nected to the lines so constructed, except where the work con- 
structed consists of feeders or an addition to the network, in 
the general distribution system of the company, in which event 
refund to the applicant will be made only on the energy used by 
those consumers who are connected to that part of the work 
specifically constructed for the applicant which extends beyond 
the network of the general distribution system of the company. 
Provision is made, however, that in no case shall the amount 
refunded to the applicant on the energy used by any consumer 
exceed the normal cost of that portion of the work constructed 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 269 

which is useful in serving that customer. That amount refunded 
to the applicant should be based upon the energy taken and used 
within ten years after commencement of supply, and the total 
amount of the refund should not exceed the normal cost of the 
work applied for. 

Moreover, the refund will be computed at a rate per unit as 
determined by the following formula : Refund rate per kilowatt- 
hour = dollars -f- (36,000 X contracted kilowatt demand). The 
sum of the money in this formula is the normal cost of the work 
as described. The refund will be paid by the company to the 
applicant annually. The kilowatt demand in this formula is the 
capacity contracted for and reserved to the use of the applicant 
by the company. 

No refund or interest shall be paid unless the applicant's bills 
for energy have been paid in full, nor shall any annual refund 
payment exceed 50 per cent of the sum of the bill for the energy 
used within the refund period from the work of construction 
under the application. Besides, the company reserves the right 
to refund at any time all or any part of the unrefunded portion 
of the normal cost of the specified work. No refund of interest 
whatsoever will be allowed on the excess cost of the specified 
work, which excess is the difference between the normal cost and 
the amount deposited. 

Interest not exceeding 6 per cent per annum will be paid by the 
company to the applicant annually upon the balance of the nor- 
mal cost held at the time and subject to be refunded, and this 
annual rate of interest will be computed by this formula : 
Rate = 0.6 of 1 per cent X average hours' use per daj^ of the 
contracted kilowatt demand. 

The hours' use per day of the contracted kilowatt demand 
in this formula is to be determined by dividing the monthly aver- 
age of kilowatt-hours upon which refund is allowed by thirty 
times the demand contracted for. 

PAYING DEMAND-METER INSTALLATION EXPENSE 

When a Middle Western central station began to install de- 
mand meters on its larger industrial customers' installations it 
found quite frequently that services were taken into the premises 
from two or more widely separate points. To rearrange the 



270 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

wiring so that the total instantaneous demand could be measured 
on a single meter meant a considerable expenditure. The com- 
pany did not feel that it could afford to go to the expense of 
making the change. At the same time it realized how much to 
the benefit of the customer it would be if the change were made. 
To induce the customer to pay for the change in this wiring, 
therefore, was the problem. 

In most cases the difficulty was cleared up by measuring the 
demands on the separate services and presenting a bill based on 
the total of the separate readings, together with an explanation 
of the reduction which could be made if the owner would change 
his wiring so that the demand could be measured at a single point 
to give him the advantage of his load diversity. 



SECTION VI 

MANAGEMENT 
SELLING STOCK LOCALLY 

A STOCK-SELLING Campaign in its home territory just completed 
by the Dayton (Ohio) Power & Light Company was somewhat 
unusual in that it was handled by the company's own men exclu- 
sively. The major portion of the work was carried b}^ the com- 
mercial department under the direction of Thomas F. Kelly, 



An Investment Opportunity 

In One of Your Public Utility Properties 



Ao opportunity is nojr available to our 
cutomert to beoome finkncially inter- 
(•tad ia this large public titility system — 
to share io the moderate returns follow- 
ing efficient, progressive and economical 
management and full consideration for 
the rights of the public. 

The Dayton Power & Light Company 
is now operating in Montgomery, Qreene, 
Clark, ClintOD and Miami counties and 



supplying electric aerrice in forty-one 
coDimunities including the cities of Day- 
ton, Piqua, Xenia and 'Wilmiiigton. lu 
addition we supply Steam Service in Day> 
ton, Heating Service in Piqua and own 
and operate the Waterworks system of 
Wilmington. 

We desire to encourage increasing 
proprietorship in the company by all cus- 
tomers. There are at present more 'hau 
1200 widely-scattered stockholders. 



Amons th« many reasons commending the purchase of the 
6% Cumulative Preferred Stock of the Dayton Power & 
Liaht Company now ate the following: 



We will seU a $100.00 share for $83.00 
in cash or in monthly payments and you 
will earn 7% on your investment. 

Each share can be purchased by pay- 
ing $10.00 down and the balance in five 
pajTnents of $15.00 each. 

Dniinesa and gross earnings have 
steadily and substantially incrensed since 
organization in 1911. 

This stock has paid quarterly dividends 
of 6% per annum regularly since the or- 
gioizstion of the company. 



The company is a' large organization 
with annual gross earnings in excess of 
$2,000,000 and with properties located in 
diversified communities. 

The company publishes an annual re- 
port which is tccompanicd by corlilicatc 
of audit by an independent auditor. 

Dividends on three or more shares ivill 
return to you enough to. pay the average 
residential light bill for a year. 

Your capital and the money it.<earas for 
ycu will retoain at home. 



FROM ONE TO TWENTY SHARES MAY BE PURCHASED FOR CASH 
OB MONTHLY PAYMENTS. Tft^ SMALL STOCKHOLDER IS WEL- 
COMED AND PURCHASERS OF ONE SHARE WILL RECEIVE THE 
SAME CONSIDERATION AS THE PURCHASER OF THE MAXIMUM 
KUiBEB. DETAILED INTORMATiaN UPON REQL'EST. 

The Dayton Power & Light Co. 



50 South Jefferson Street 



Bdl, Main 44.94 



Home 6166 



Fig. 84 — Interesting the Local Public in Utility Stock 

271 



272 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

commercial manager. The issue consisted of 560 shares of $100 
par value authorized for sale by the Ohio Public Utilities Com- 
mission at $85 per share. The plan was to sell not more than 
twenty shares or less than one share to any person. At the end 
of three weeks 387 shares had been sold, and the whole amount 
in less than five weeks. The issue, being small, was sold without 
any really intensive sales effort. Some newspaper advertising in 

The Dayton Power & Light Company 

Home Telephone Building, 50 South Jefferson Street 
Dayton, Ohio 

July 15, 1918. 
TO OUR CUSTOMERS: 

The Public Utilities Commission of Ohio has authorized a limited 
issue of the company's 6 per cent cumulative preferred stock, the pro- 
ceeds of which are to be used for additions to our property. 

We have felt that a large number of our customers would be glad to 
avail themselves of an opportunity to invest their savings and thus 
become partners and part owners in this local enterprise, and therefore, 
for the first time, we are offering our stock to our customers under the 
following arrangements : 

Each customer will be permitted to buy from one to twenty shares 
of this preferred stock at $85 per share (par value $100 each). Pay- 
ments may be made in cash or on the following installment plan : 

Ten dollars a share to be paid at the time of subscription and fifteen 
dollars a share per month to be paid at the time the bill for electric 
service is due, until the full amount of the subscription has been paid, 
which shall include the accrued dividend from the last preceding divi- 
dend date. 

Interest at 5 per cent per annum will be allowed on all payments until 
the final payment is made, when the investment will begin to earn 6 
per cent. 

The purchase of this stock at $85 a share means that you will earn 
over 7 per cent on the money invested, and in addition this stock is tax- 
free in Ohio. 

Your subscription will be received at our office or our representative 
will call at your convenience. Dividends on three or four shares will 
return to you each year enough to pay the average residential light bill 
for a year. The fullest investigation of this offering is desired. 
Yours very truly, 

The Dayton Power & Light Company, 
THOMAS F. KELLY, Commercial Manager. 
Fig. SS — A Letter to the Central Station's Customejis 



MANAGEMENT 273 

Dayton and in other towns served by the company was used. 
The advertisement reprinted herewith is typical (Fi^^. 84), the 
slogan in the literature being "It's a mighty good buy." As 
further producers of inquiries personal letters (Fig. 85) were 
employed, and local bankers in the smaller towns were personally 
told of the issue in order that they might suggest it to pros- 
pective investors asking advice. An interesting feature of the 
publicity campaign was that the first stock purchaser was the 
printer who was employed to get out the literature. Proofread- 
ing the copy convinced him that he should voluntarily subscribe 
to the issue to the full amount of his savings. 

SELLING PREFERRED STOCK AT HOME 

Under present financial conditions in the principal money 
markets of the country, the difficulty of securing funds is becom- 
ing a more serious matter every day to the utilities. One plan, 
however, that seems to produce results even when money is par- 
ticularly tight is that of selling securities to the public in home 
territory. 

Within the past three years a number of companies have tried 
out this scheme for raising funds, and in every instance, so far as 
records show, they have been more successful than was antici- 
pated in the beginning. For a number of months the Pacific 
Power & Light Company of Portland, Ore., has carried on an 
active campaign for selling its preferred stock. The principal 
reason for this campaign, the company states, is to secure a 
greater distribution of stock among residents of the territories 
it serves and its employees. It says : 

The interest of our customers and the employees of the company is 
mutual. Our growtli and welfare is closely interwoven with the 
advancement of each and every one of the communities we serve. Each 
customer who is a stockliolder, we believe, will take a more active inter- 
est in our company, and it is this interest that every larye company 
wants and must have to be a success. 

For a given amount of stock, a large number of holders are desired 
in preference to a few large stockholders. The importance of making 
this campaign is great. Every employee, whether in the office, a line- 
man, a meterman or a power-department man, we hope will do all 
within his power to do his part in actually selling the stock. 



274 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

COAL CHARGE BRINGS HIGHER UNIT REVENUE 

An instance of increased unit revenue resulting from the appli- 
cation of a coal charge is afforded by a street railway's transac- 
tions with a central station situated on tidewater in eastern New 
England. The power contract between the two concerns is based 
upon a price of coal not exceeding on an average $4 per ton 
delivered at the wharf. Should the average price be in excess of 
$4 per ton, then the railway company pays the power company 
at the end of each year an amount equal to that obtained by 
multiplying such excess per gross ton by the number of gross 
tons of coal actually burned in generating electricity for the 
railway company. The amount of coal so burned is taken as 
bearing the same proportion to the total coal burned in the sta- 
tion as the electrical energy used by the railway company, as 
measured, bears to the total energy generated in the station and 
distribution from it. This contract was made when the price of 
coal was about $3.37 per ton, so that the power company was 
obliged to stand the loss between $3.37 and $4 per ton before any 
adjustment was made. For the year 1917 the cost of power to 
the railway company was $223,593, an increase of about $55,000 
over the amount paid in the year ended June 30, 1916. The 
average price of coal for 1917 was $7.51 per ton against $3.65 for 
1916. The average price of coal for 1917 was $7.51 per ton 
against $3.65 for 1916. 

The unit selling price of energy to the railway by the central 
station at the alternating-current terminals of the railway sub- 
stations was 1.77 cents for the year 1917 per kilowatt-hour, com- 
pared with a base price of 1.4 cents per kilowatt-hour made for 
coal at $4 per ton. In 1917 the central station received 0.37 cent 
more per kilowatt-hour of alternating-current energy delivered 
at the substation terminals than in 1916. The total energy gen- 
erated at the plant in 1916 cost 0.42 cent per kilowatt-hour for 
fuel and 0.84 cent in 1917, or an increase of 0.42 cent. As the 
cost of generation per kilowatt-hour delivered at the substations 
as alternating-current energy exceeds the cost of production per 
kilowatt-hour at the plant itself on account of the reduced num- 
ber of kilowatt-hours delivered at the substations compared with 
the energy produced at the main plant, it is apparent that the 
additional price paid by the railway in this case did not fully 



MANAGEMENT 275 

compensate for the increased cost of coal at the main plant. The 
central-station company bore part of the added burden, and in 
support of this practice it is contended that if a company shares 
a part of the burden of increased costs it will find its applica- 
tions for rate advances more favorably regarded by the public 
and by the public utility commissioners having jurisdiction over 
it in rate matters. 



HOW INCREASED RATES AFFECT REVENUE 

Tabulating the results of rate increases in utilities of several 
hundred communities has made it evident that increasing rates 
in some classes of utility service gives the full measure of ex- 
pected relief, while in other classes of service the increased 
revenue actually derived is not so great as the extent of the rate 
increase would indicate that it should be. When the need for 
rate increases in utility business became apparent commercial 
men began to speculate as to the probable effect. It was remem- 
bered that on the occasion of each decrease in rates it had been 
possible by intensified sales effort so to increase the volume of 
business as to keep the company's revenues from falling off mark- 
edly because of the lower schedule. Moreover, the constant tend- 
ency was for patrons enjoying a rate decrease to use more service, 
so that the actual money paid for service remained about the 
same after the decrease as before it. Reasoning conversely on 
this proposition, in anticipation of the coming necessity for in- 
creasing rates, it would seem that a curtailment in the use of 
energy might be expected to follow. This, of course, was taken 
to mean that rate increases of, say, 15 per cent would not pro- 
duce a 15 per cent increase in utility revenue. 

In some measure this line of reasoning was correct, but with the 
gas utilities it was totally incorrect. It appears to be almost 
universally true that a given percentage of increase in gas rates 
will produce the same and in some cases even a greater percentage 
of increased revenue. Utility managers believe this is at- 
tributable to the difficult fuel situation. Customers, instead of 
curtailing gas consumption on account of increasing prices, have 
been forced to use more gas because it was more available and 
perhaps cheaper than coalor oil. 

Electric utilities have not enjoyed the same experience. A^ an 



276 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

average figure it may be said that a given percentage of increase 
in electric service rates will produce an increase in revenue equal 
to only 75 per cent of that indicated by the rate advance. In 
other words, a 20 per cent increase in rates increases the revenue 
only 15 per cent. Not only do patrons cut down on the use of 
energy when the rates go up, but there are other external factors 
that must be taken into consideration, including the daylight- 
saving measure and the curtailment of service for classes of light- 
ing not sanctioned by the Fuel Administration, 

UTILIZING SURPLUS CAPACITY OF WATER-WORKS 

STATION 

The enormous demand for power upon central-station com- 
panies has presented a problem to operators which it is becoming 
increasingly difficult satisfactorily to meet. A number of con- 
tracts have been entered into between central stations and large 
industries manufacturing their own electrical energy for use by 
central stations of every kilowatt over and above the needs of 
the industry concerned. 

Another interesting phase of the situation, which will possibly 
be a partial solution of the difficulties of some central stations, 
has now come to light through arrangements being made by the 
utility companies for the purchase of energy from municipalities 
operating their own waterworks systems. A contract of this 
nature lately entered into in a Middle Western city of the 25,000 
population class calls for the purchase of the entire output of 
electrical energy generated by a 225-kva. generator over and 
above the pumping requirements. 

Under the terms of the contract the waterworks bind them- 
selves to furnish such electrical energy at all times, and the com- 
pany to receive and pay for such energy to the extent of its 
demands for a period of three years ; and provision is made that 
if during the term of the contract the waterworks shall have any 
additional electrical energy for sale the company shall have the 
option to purchase it at the same rate and under the same terms 
as provided in the contract for the purchase of the energy gen- 
erated by the 225-kva. generator. 

The rate provided to be paid by the company to the water- 
works for the electricity so purchased is somewhat in excess of the 



MANAGEMENT 277 

actual cost of generation by the company's own generators, but 
the advantage of having an immediately available supply of elec- 
trical energy for war-time demands outweighs this small differ- 
ence. 

Provisions are made, of course, for the accurate measurement 
of energy received by the company under the contract and for 
rebating pro rata to the party suffering from any inaccuracy 
discovered. The contract further provides that during the life 
of the contract the company shall not be required to pay the 
waterworks for electrical energy purchased so long as the city is 
indebted to the company for street-lighting service, and that in 
the event of the city paying the company for its street-lighting 
service in scrip or warrants the waterworks will accept such scrip 
or warrants at full face value in payment for electrical energy 
purchased by the company from the waterworks. 

The contract for the purchase of this energy was made con- 
jointly with the renewal of the street-lighting contract existing 
between the city and the company. It provides the w^aterworks 
with a means of disposing of excess electrical energy generated 
at a profit and gives the compan}- a reserve supply of power 
which it so much needs. 



ECONOMY OF GOOD POWER FACTOR 

The cost of transmission lines is greatly increased by low power 
factor. For example, the number of pounds of copper required 
on a transmission system operating at 70 per cent power factor, 
writes Will Brown, Electric Machinery Company, Minneapolis, 
Minn., is at least 33 per cent more than is required if the system 




ALTLKNATOR 



Fig. 86 — More Useless than Useful Current Circulates with 70 per 

CENT Power Factor 

As a result larger conductors and switching equipment are required, the 
apparatus supplying energy must l)e larger, and maintenance of constant 
voltage is more difficult. 



278 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

operates at 90 per cent power factor ; but very often the nearest 
standard-size wire (or gage) may considerably exceed the exact 
requirements (in circular mills). Thus the percentage of cost 
may be largely increased, in some cases to the extent of 60 per 
cent. That is, if the system at 90 per cent power factor requires 
100,000 lb. (43,360 kg.) of copper, the system at 70 per cent 
power factor requires 159,000 lb. (72,120 kg.) of copper, it being 
understood that both are 60-cycle systems with the same line 
drops, operating at full capacity and carrying the same rated 
kw. load. 

One can go further into this matter of waste caused by low 
power factor by considering the two systems compared below, 
each having 3000 kw. in motors. System A operates at a power 
factor of 90 per cent lagging (3333 kva.), whereas system B 
operates at a power factor of 70 per cent lagging (4285 kv.). 
Both deliver the same power, viz., 3000 kw. The initial costs of 
the two systems are as follows: 

System A System B 

Generators 1 $34,200 $44,100 

Transmission lines 45,000 72,000 

Transforming and switching equipment. . 7,000 9,250 

Motors, etc 35,400 35,400 

Total $121,600 $160,750 

Nearly $40,000 worth of additional equipment must be in- 
stalled to enable system B to operate at 70 per cent power factor 
and still carry the same kw. load as system A at 90 per cent ; and 
this is by no means all the waste involved, for there is a constant 
loss due to greater heating caused by the low power factor. 

The proper use of synchronous motors — that is, for the type 
of duty for which they are adapted — will go a long way toward 
relieving conditions of low power factor. Synchronous motors 
for power-factor correction should be installed as near as possible 
to the causes of lagging power factor. The reactive current then 
circulates between the induction motors and the synchronous 
motors only, and the generators and distributing lines are re- 
lieved thereof. 

There is another way of looking at the value of improving 
power factor which should be particularly interesting at this 
time, namely that larger loads can be carried without increasing 

1 Prime movers not included. 



MANAGEMENT 



279 



the generating, transforming or distribution facilities if the 
power factor is raised. This may afford the quickest way of 
providing for increased production since it does not involve the 
purchase, deliver}' or installation of a large amount of equip- 
ment. 

As an example of what can be done along this line attention 
may be called to one plant which was operating at an average 
power factor of 72 per cent lagging and which was driving about 
1400 hp. of induction motors of various sizes ranging from 1 hp. 
to 200 hp. It became absoluteh' necessar}" that a large motor be 
added to the line for driving a compressor. The alternators 
were already loaded to the safe overload capacity. A 500-kva. 



P)-y\ 56%P.F 
^ril LEADING 




ALTERNATOR 
C^AOTY tOOO K.VA 



Fig. 86A — ^Mixing Synchronous Apparatus with Induction Motors Re- 
duces Useless Circulating Current 
The sjTichronous equipment can also carry load and permits using smaller 
conductors, switches, etc., or at least allows using the reserve capacity for 
other purposes. Reserve capacity is also released in the energy-supply 
apparatus. 

synchronous motor was added to the system to drive the com- 
pressor (about 280 hp.). By overexciting the motor so it would 
run at a power factor of 42 per cent leading it was possible to 
raise the power factor of the system to approximately 90 per cent. 
The same alternators are now driving the original 1400 hp. of 
motors plus the 280 hp, used for the compressor and are actually 
generating less kva. than before. Under the new conditions it 
requires only 1400 kva. at 90 per cent power factor to serve 
nearly 300 hp. more equipment than under the former condition 
when the alternators were delivering 1460 kva. at 72 per cent 
power factor. (See Fig. 87.) 

The reason why the induction motors are so much too large for 
their work is primarily found in the fact that the motor voltage 
is 550, which is an unusual voltage for induction motors, so that 



280 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



it was difficult to find in stock the right size motor for each pur- 
pose. The buyers picked up motors where they could find them, 
often taking a 50-hp. motor where one of 25 hp. would have been 
sufficient for the load. 




?00 400 (600 600 lOOO 
Reactive Power in K.V.A, 

P'lG. 87 — Vector Diagram Showing Effect of Raising Power Factor 

FROM 72 PER cent TO 90 PER CENT BY SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 

The synchronous motor rated at 500 kva. is delivering 210 kw. of me- 
chanical power at the same time that it is correcting the power factor of 
the system. The original system was delivering 1460 kva., of which only 
10'50 kw. was employed usefully for mechanical power. After the addition 
of the synchronous motor the system delivered 1260 kw. of mechanical 
power, while the apparent kva. was reduced from 1460 to 1400. By similar 
diagram any one can figure the size of the synchronous condensers required 
to produce the desired power factor on his lines. It can be seen by the 
diagram that it rarely pays to raise the power factor above 90 per cent 
as the amount of condenser capacity required is very large in proportion to 
the increase of effective kw. which can be secured. 

From an engineering viewpoint it is much better to buy a 
motor just large enough for its average load, and if in the future 
it should be necessary to drive a heavier load, the old motor can 
be replaced with one of larger rating. Much money can be saved 
by such practice in the first cost of the motor, the higher effi- 
ciencies secured, and from the standpoint of generating and deliv- 
ering power. 

Rubber factories as a rule suffer from poor power factor, 
caused by many large induction motors running at part loads. 
A certain rubber company obtains a rate from the central sta- 
tion based on a maximum demand of approximately 8000 kw. 



MANAGEMENT 281 

at a power factor of 90 per cent. Should this power factor drop 
to 70 per cent, the rubber company- is penalized at the rate of $1 
per kilowatt per year on the maximum demand for that month. 
In order to maintain power factor at 90 per cent the company has 
installed two condensei' sets with a ratinu' of 2000 kva. each. 

When to Use a Synchronous Motor. Wherever a large, 
constant-speed load is to be driven the very first question asked 
should be: "Can a synchronous motor be used to drive this 
load?" If starting and running conditions are such that this is 
possible, the question ought to be answered in favor of the syn- 
chronous motor. The matter should be viewed both from the 
standpoint of motor efficiency and also from the bi'oader view- 
point of overhead cost for delivering power. Following is a 
t^'pical case as outlined by a prominent central-station manager. 

A centrifugal pump requiring 400 hp. and with a speed of 
approximately 600 r.p.m w^as to be driven by an alternating- 
current motor. There w^ere to be a number of other smaller 
motors at this plant. If a 400-hp. induction motor was installed, 
it was estimated that the average powder factor of the load w-ould 
be 70 per cent lagging. The average power factor of the load 
with a 400-hp. synchronous motor driving the pump would be 
over 90 per cent power factor. The comparative efficiency of 
the two motors was considerably in favor of the synchronous unit. 

The following table shows that nearly $14,000 more initial 
investment ^ would have been required of the central-station 
company to serve the load if the 400-hp. induction motor had 
been installed than was necessary with the synchronous motor 
installed : 



Transformer substation $430.00 

2300-volt service 21o.00 

13,000-volt distributing system 1,S0().00 

Step-down substation (r)0,000 volts to 13,200 volts) . . . 774.00 

Transmission lines, 50,000 volts 8,G00.00 

Step-up transformers, 13,200 volts to 50,000 volts 774.00 

Generators 1 ,290.00 

Total $13,880.00 

On a basis of 10 per cent for interest and depreciation tbis would mean 
an annual charge of $1,389 against the induction motor whrn compared 
with the svnchronous motor. 



1 Based on total kilovolt-amperes required with both arrangements. 



282 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

Under the conditions the central-station company absolutely 
refused to furnish power for this load unless a synchronous motor 
was used. 

Changes are rapidly being made in regard to power-factor 
regulation. 

One large manufacturing company near Chicago which is a 
large user of power received a bonus for one month of more 
than $1,300 as a result of maintaining a power factor better 
than 95 per cent. In contrast to this, a rather small company 
using power was penalized $1,900 last year for low power factor. 
It is interesting to note that this concern was operating a motor- 
generator set consisting of a 150-hp. induction motor driving a 
direct-current generator. Owing to the fact that the maximum 
load of the generator was never more than 40 kw. or 50 kw. and 
generally much less than this, the power factor on this induction 
motor was very poor. If this had been a synchronous motor of 
similar rating operated at its full kva. capacity, the power factor 
of the interior system would have been so raised that there would 
have been no penalty imposed. Thus in one year's time a saving 
of $1,900 would have been effected, or more than enough to pay 
for the motor. 

One of the large power companies in Ohio has the following 
clause in its contract : 

When the current supply is alternating and the greater part of the 
load is power and the bilhng demand exceeds 75 kw., the company 
reserves the right to test the power factor of the consumer's load, and 
if the average power factor is greater than 75 per cent, then the demand 
shall be reduced in accordance with the following formula: Billing 
demand = kilow^att demand as measured -f- average per cent power 
factor X 75. 

If the average power factor is less than 60 per cent, then the demand 
shall be increased in accordance with the following formula: Billing 
demand = kilowatt demand as measured -f- average per cent power 
factor X 60. 

The company will make without charge a power-factor test at the 
consumer's request once a year, if his demand exceeds 75 kw. By 
power factor is meant the average power factor under normal operating 
conditions. 

A number of companies in Illinois operating under the Illinois 
Public Utilities Commission incorporate the following clause in 
power contracts : 



MANAGEMENT 



283 



"Should the power factor fall below 80 per cent, the energy as me- 
tered shall, for billing purposes, be subject to an increase in the ratio 
of 80 per cent to the actual power factor as used." 

The following clause is quoted from an Indiana company's 
contract : 

"The primary charges will be increased by 1 per cent for each 1 per 
cent the power factor on the entire load decreases below 75 per cent at 
any time." 

AUTO-TRANSFORMER BETTERS POWER FACTOR 

After the installation of more efficient lamps on a series street 
lighting system, a central station in New York State found that 
the power factor was very materially lowered, owing to the lower 
voltage at which the transformers were required to operate. 
This was due to the fact that the desired illumination could be 
secured with the more efficient lamps of the old current rating 



>200 Volt Source 
of Enerqy 



Distribution |Transforrrier 

Kim 



r'^^^mm^m^ 



Secondary 
Ltads open 



Lighting Transformer 




Fig. 88 — How Auto-Transformer May Help Power Factor 

with lower voltage units. To improve conditions a distribution 
transformer was connected across the source of supply as shown 
in the accompanying diagram, Fig. 88. Its primary acted as an 
auto-transformer and its secondary was open. The primary was 



284 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

tapped midway between the two terminals, 1100 volts being im- 
pressed upon the terminals of the lighting transformer. This 
greatly increased the power factor of the system and obviated the 
purchase 'of an additional step-up transformer of correct size. 
Of course, this connection was facilitated by the fact that the 
distribution transformer had 50 per cent taps on the primary. 

IDLE GENERATOR IMPROVES POWER FACTOR 

It is not unusual to connect a synchronous machine to some 
part of a circuit to improve the power factor, but a company in 
New England has found a method of doing this which utilizes any 
generators which may be idle. This is made possible by the fact 
that it has duplicate transmission lines running from its main 
generating station, only one of which is ordinarily required to 
carry the load. The other circuit is provided for emergency use 
and also to take care of future increases in load. When the 
power factor gets low the duplicate lines are paralleled at their 
distant ends, and any generator that may not be carrying load 
is connected to the reserve line. It is then allowed to run as a 
synchronous motor, being excited enough to compensate for the 
low power factor at the delivery end of the line. 

A slight load can be put on the generator if necessary to secure 
the desired wattless current by allowing some water to flow 
through the waterwheel. 

This arrangement, besides utilizing equipment that would 
otherwise be idle, improves the power factor in both the line and 
the generators carrying load, whereas if it was merely floated on 
the bus as a synchronous condenser it would not benefit the line. 
By so doing it is also possible during a sleet storm to circulate 
enough current through the reserve line to melt any sleet which 
may adhere to the conductors. 

CORRECTING POWER FACTOR IN DISTRIBUTION 

CIRCUIT 

To take on an additional load of 160 hp. in a 550-volt secondary 
network system, where the primary feeder, switchboard panel 
and transformers were operating at over capacity, 570 kva., at a 
power factor averaging 60 per cent and at times running as low 



MANAGEMENT 



285 



as 50 per cent, was the problem which confronted the engineers 
of Lynn (^lass.) Gas & Electric Company about three years ago, 
according to J. F. Dubois, manager of the electric department. 
The company was supplying energy to the neighborhood contain- 
ing the factory by a 550-volt secondary network, shown in Fig. 
89 in single-line diagram, banks of transformers lieiug connected 
in at various points. 

Two courses appeared open — first, to improve the power factor 
of the operating circuit, and second, to install a new circuit with 
the necessary transformers, etc. The matter was discussed with 
engineers of the General Electric Company, who suggested that 
static condensers might be utilized, although no equipment of this 
kind for outdoor w'ork had been developed at that time. It ap- 
peared that if the second plan of dividing the existing network 
and installing the necessary transformer and three-conductor 
cable from the station, together with switchboard panel and in- 
struments, was followed, the operating conditions would not be 
improved, but that existing troubles would be increased. The 
generators would still be supplying the cables and transformers, 
with the transmission of a large wattless current. On the other 
hand, by the use of the static condenser the overload on the cables 




Fig. 89 — Location of Transformer Banks and Condensers 



would be reduced. Generator and transformer capacity would 
be released for other service and the power factor would be im- 
proved along the whole system back to the generator. No ex- 



286 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



citation or operating labor would be required for this form of 
apparatus. 

Early in 1915 two static condensers rated at 100 kva. each 
were installed and connected to the secondary network. Space 
not being available at the factory first mentioned, one unit of 



Reactance 






X. u 




jTiG. 90 — Arrangement of Static Condenser Equipment Stations 

100 kva. was located in a machine shop across the street. 
At another point, between banks of transformers shown in 
the circles in Fig. 89, a portable galvanized-iron building was 
erected to house the other condenser. The company found it- 
self able to take on this factory of 160 hp. in motors without the 
addition of a single transformer or the changing of the circuit 
in any way except in the installation of the condensers. The 
power factor of the circuit at the station was raised to about 78 
per cent. 

The results from this were so satisfactory that in the past 
year another unit, of the subway type, was installed in an or- 



MANAGEMENT 287 

dinary transformer manhole on ]\Iunroe Street, Lynn. In this 
case the cells are inclosed in two tanks, the accompanying reac- 
tance being inclosed in a smaller tank about the size of a 5-kva. 
transformer. An oil switch and contactor are inclosed in an- 
other tank, and an ammeter with transfer phase switch and push- 
button control are placed in a pedestal on the sidewalk. This 
equipment is working perfectly at present and in a recent test it 
raised the power factor of the circuit at the station from 60 per 
cent with the condensers all off to 90 per cent with all the units 
in, the present load being about 440 kva. 

IMPROVING POWER FACTOR AND VOLTAGE 
REGULATION 

Since early in the summer of 1917, writes J. T. Peyton, of 
Westinghouse Electric & ^Manufacturing Company, the Duquesne 
Light Company, serving the Pittsburgh district and the counties 
of Allegheny and Beaver in the southwestern part of Pennsyl- 
vania, has had in operation on its lines a 7500-kva., 11,000-volt, 
600-r.p.m. synchronous condenser for raising the power factor of 
the system and maintaining voltage regulation. After this con- 
denser was put in service and its ability to handle the unfavorable 
conditions imposed on the Rankin plant was successfully demon- 
strated, the Duquesne Light Company ordered two duplicate 
machines. One of these was installed during April at the Beaver 
Falls substation, 32 miles (51.5 km.) from the Brunot's Island 
plant, and connected by two 66,000-volt transmission lines, each 
having a capacity of 20,000 kva. This station is at the end of the 
66,000-volt system, and the load at that point at the present time 
is only about 500 kva., so the condenser for the present Avill be 
used for controlling the voltage, some method of regulation being 
necessary on account of the line impedance and the comparatively 
high reactance of the transformers now in use. The other one, 
when completed, will be placed in the Lawrenceville substation, 
where the conditions are somewhat similar. As the company ex- 
pands and the load on the system increases, it will very likely 
continue to place synchronous condensers at the principal load 
centers, and the time may come when it can obtain practically a 
flat voltage curve notwithstanding variations in the power factor. 

Benefits of Synchronous Condensers. There is nothing new 



288 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

in the application of synchronous condensers to this class of 
service, for there are many of them in operation to-day and have 
been for years. However, when one stops to consider that many 
of the companies are operating close to maximum rating during 
these war times, and that generating equipment is necessarily at 
a premium with a large number of them, it is rather surprising 
that these machines are not in greater demand. In all proba- 
bility there are many cases to-day where the conditions are such 
that the introduction of a condenser would solve the problem, or 
at least go a long way toward the solution. With the unprece- 
dented increase in prices of apparatus and materials of all kinds, 
the vital consideration, of course, is the expense incident to any 
change involving new equipment or construction work. How- 
ever, a little analysis on the part of the operator who is pressed 
for sufficient capacity may reveal the fact that by the use of a 
synchronous condenser he can secure some, if not all, of the fol- 
lowing benefits: 

1. Meet increased demands without the purchase of additional 
generating equipment — and by generating equipment is meant 
not only the generators but the necessary prime movers and 
auxiliary apparatus. 

2. Reduce the cost per kilowatt of additional transmission rat- 
ing. 

3. Effect a material saving in present transmission losses. 

4. Improve service by maintaining the required voltage. 

Up to 1913 the Rankin plant, now rated at 10,000 kw., was 
operated independently of the rest of the system. At that 
time the load had grown to such an extent, owing chiefly to large 
individual motors and electric furnaces, that it became neces- 
sary to parallel with the main generating station at Brunot's 
Island, where the rating is 115,000 kw. This was done originally 
through two 11,000-volt lines. The central point of the load was 
then approximately midway between the two stations so that only 
about one-half of the line impedance came into the regulation 
problem, and it was possible to maintain fairly steady voltage 
at Rankin. During the last few years, however, the load grew 
so rapidly that it became necessary to deliver power direct to 
the Rankin bus for distribution. Two 22,000-volt lines were in- 
stalled between the stations, having a combined capacity of 
16,000 kva. The drop in these lines at full load is approximately 



MANAGEMENT 



289 



13 per cent. The problem which presented itself was how to 
obtain the best possible regulation in the 11,000-volt transmis- 
sion network feeding from the Rankin bus, the load being ap- 
proximately 10,000 kw. and the power factor ranging from 70 
to 75 per cent. (The engine-type generators in the Rankin 
plant, which have been in service for a number of years, can be 
operated at low power factor only at reduced capacity.) 

To accomplish the desired results at minimum expense, and at 
the same time provide for probable future increase in load, it was 
found, in view of the low power factor, that the installation of 
a S3^nchronous condenser for corrective effect would actually re- 
duce the transmission investment required per kilowatt, so that 
a condenser at this point was warranted on basis of transmission 
rating alone. A 7500-kva. unit was chosen which will permit 
operating the tie lines, when fully loaded, at a power factor of 
90 per cent. 

The particularly interesting feature in connection w^ith the 




2 4 6 8 JO 12 14 

Kilowatts Transmitted. Jhousoinds 

Fig. 91 — Load and Regulation Curves 

present method of operation, made possible by the fact that the 
tie lines are not yet loaded to their rating and that the present 
load conditions do not require the full rating of the condenser 
at zero power factor, is the use of this machine as a voltage regu- 
lator. The Rankin plant is now run at practically full load witli 
power factor of 90 to 95 per cent, and the voltage regulation of 
the station is taken care of entirely by an automatic regulator 



290 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

controlling the condenser exciter, it being the only one in the 
plant. The regulation of the entire network, therefore, is af- 
fected automatically by the value of the magnetizing current 
drawn by the condenser. 

The accompanying curves. Figs. 91 and 92, prepared from the 
transformer and line characteristics, will show the voltage com- 
pensation, or regulation, which can be obtained, the line amperes 
and line power factors, as follows: 

(a) Inherent regulation, two lines in parallel, to 16,000 kva., 
70 per cent power factor. 

(b) Inherent regulation, one line, to 7750 kva., 70 per cent 
power factor. 

(c) Eange of constant voltage obtainable when using syn- 
chronous condenser from maximum lagging kva. to maximum 
leading kva. 

(d) Synchronous condenser loads, one line in service. 

(e) Synchronous condenser loads, two lines in service. 

(f ) Maximum load transmitted 7500 kw., both lines in service, 
maximum power factor 100 per cent. 

(g) Voltage range corresponding to curve (/). 

There are several fixed adjustments which can be used to add 
to the voltage regulation as conditions materially change: (1) 
The ratio of transformers may be changed; (2) one line or two 
lines may be used; (3) the old 11,000-volt tie line having approx- 
imately 20 per cent regulation can be connected in on exceed- 
ingly light loads. 

With one line in service and using maximum limits of con- 
denser it will be noted from curves (c) and (d) that the voltage 
can be maintained constant with load varying from 3100 kw. to 
7400 kw. Under load of 7400 kw. the maximum capacity of one 
line is reached, so at this point the second line is put in service, 
as shown by the arrows and dotted lines at curves (d) and (e). 
When the two lines are operated in parallel and using the con- 
denser between its limits, constant voltage is obtained with load 
varying from 7400 kw. to 14,400 kw., as indicated by curves (c) 
and (e). With load of 14,400 kw. and condenser operating at 
maximum capacity leading, the power factor of the line is at its 
maximum — 90 per cent — and the lines are fully loaded at 16,000 
kva. When the maximum load is only 7500 kva. and 100 per cent 
power factor is obtainable, it will be noted that flat voltage range 



MANAGEMENT 



291 



is materially increased, but since the allowable drgp is reduced 
the transformer ratio must be changed. 

While the curves show the limits of constant voltage with the 
condenser in service, it should be noted that it is very undersir- 
able to run the machine at lagging power factor, since it reduces 
the power factor of the plant, which is already objectionably low. 
Upon referring to the power-factor curves, especially the one 
for one line, it will be seen how rapidly the power factor drops 
when the condenser is drawing lagging current. 

While provided with a direct-connected exciter, which was 
also designed for use as a motor for bringing the machine up to 
synchronous speed, should this method of starting be desirable 
at any time, the condenser is self-starting and is equipped with 
an oil-pressure outfit for raising the shaft up from the bearings 
in order to eliminate the bearing friction and thereby reduce 
to a minimum the current required from the line, which otherwise 
would be comparatively large in amount at the instant of start- 
ing. With the oil-pressure outfit in operation the machine can 
be brought up to synchronous speed without drawing more than 
1800 kva. to 2000 kva. from the line, as compared with 7000 kva. 
required when starting with the bearings dry. A pressure in 



500 



J 400 

L. 
O 



300 



200 









^ 


^ 




















./ 


/ 








r^ 


« ( 


r^ 


^ 






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P 


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r^i 


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< 


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ne) 
















^//7e Cur 


•ren 


t->-1 


















1 



100 



80 o 

J. 



60 



40 



4 e 6 10 12 J4 

Kilowc^tts Transmitted, Thousands 

Fig. 92 — Line Current and Power-Factor Curves 

the neighborhood of 100 lb. per sq. in. (7 kg. per sq. cm.) is re- 
quired actually to lift the rotating part and provide an oil-bear- 
ing surface for the journal. 

The equipment consists of a motor-driven duplex pump for 
each bearing and the necessary high-pressure piping. The cyl- 
inders are connected in pairs to a common pipe running to each 



292 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

bearing, the oil returning to the pump chamber by an overflow 
pipe. 

PREPARE HONOR ROLL FOR UNINTERRUPTED 

SERVICE 

An honor roll is being compiled for those Doherty properties 
which give uninterrupted service. The names on the list are 
obtained from the weekly reports of the various properties, in 
which they state the number of interruptions to service during 
the week just past. Seven companies were on the honor roll for 
giving perfect service for the two weeks ended Dec. 10, 1918 ; 
i.e., the Cumberland & Westernport (Md.) Electric Railway 
Company, the Durham (N. C.) Traction Company, the Hatties- 
burg (Miss.) Traction Company, the Lincoln (Neb.) Gas & Elec- 
tric Light Company, the Lorain County (Ohio) Electric Com- 
pany, the Massillon (Ohio) Electric & Gas Company, and the 
Montgomery (Ala.) Light & Railway Company. 

This information is sent to all of the properties in the or- 
ganization and helps to promote competition in the matter of 
service. The same idea could undoubtedly be applied still fur- 
ther in some degree to district offices of electric light and power 
properties. 

CLEARING HOUSE FOR IDLE STOCK 

Realizing that it is difficult if not impossible to get new 
equipment under present conditions and desiring to keep down 
the investment in idle stock, some companies with electric service 
plants in various parts of the country have established clearing 
houses for idle stock regardless of whether it is new or used. 
Each plant is required to report its idle stock on hand period- 
ically, this information being published in booklet form by the 
holding company and distributed among its plants. When any 
plant is in need of equipment included in this list it can com- 
municate with the plant having the apparatus or material or 
with the holding company. Thus equipment can be obtained in 
a very short time compared with most manufacturers' deliveries 
nowadays. Furthermore, very much less reserve stock has to be 
carried. 



MANAGEMENT 293 

SALESMAN'S ASSISTANCE IN SELECTING TRANS- 
FORMER SIZES 

The central stations are more conservative than formerly in 
making extensions, owing to their exorbitant cost, and many are 
asking the prospective consumer to pay a part of the expense. 
It is well known that the more money a '^ prospect" is asked to 
advance the harder it is to close the contract. It follows there- 
fore that any information which the salesman can gather that will 
tend to decrease the expenditures will make it easier to do busi- 
ness, writes A. G. Drury. 

The primar3' function of the construction department is to 
build and maintain the lines as economically as possible, and 
any assistance which the commercial man can lend in this work 
by his knowledge of the character of the power load to be added 
is likely to be appreciated by the superintendent. 

One way in which to assist is in the selection of the size of 
transformers. It is evident that if at the end of the year the 
reports show that 2000 kw. connected load has been added to 
the system with 1000-kw. transformer capacity, it is better than 
adding 2000 kw. and 1500 kw. in transformers most of which 
are underloaded. The advantage exists not only in the amount 
of capital saved, but also in the amount of energizing current 
required by the smaller transformers as compared to the larger 
one. 

As a concrete example there is related an incident which came 
up in connection with a contract for supplying electric energy to 
a company which made small brass and bronze casting cages such 
as are used in receivers' booths in banks, etc. The equipment 
which was to be driven by motors consisted of an elevator, a 
blower for gas furnaces, emery grinders, polishing machines, 
lathes, a milling machine, drill presses, etc., in all twenty-four 
such pieces of apparatus. The total number of motors to be 
installed amounted to 42 hp. The salesman had become familiar 
with the character of the work and reported that he had secured 
a 15-kw. maximum-demand contract. The manager accordingly 
ordered three 4-kw. transformers. One of the men in the office, 
knowing the motor equipment to total 42 hp., out of friendliness 
to the salesman told him that three 4-kw. transformers had been 
ordered, when there should have been three 10-kw. machines. 



294 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

Upon inquiry it developed that the rule was for the salesman 
to report 40 hp. or 30 kw., upon which three 10-kw. transformers 
would be purchased, whereas with co-operation established be- 
tween the two departments considerable saving in equipment 
would be accomplished. 

The difference in first cost is as follows : 

Cost to purchase and erect three lO-kw. transformers.... $271.50 
Cost to purchase and erect three 4-kw. transformers .... 144.00 



Saving in first cost $127.50 

A test made on the installation mentioned after completion 
showed the maximum demand to be 12 kw. 

The salesman by studying the characteristics of any new busi- 
ness can save as well as make money for his company. From 
considerable experience similar to the above Mr. Drury has 
found that the capacity of the transformers serving an installa- 
tion can often be limited to less than a third of the connected 
load; but the salesman must make each individual investigation 
himself and not rely on the published tables of average load or 
maximum demands for different manufacturing businesses. 
The time and energy invested will be justified by the returns. 

SAVING TIME IN VOUCHER FILING 

The Agawam (Mass.) Electric Company and affiliated central 
stations, under the management of the Cabot interests of Boston, 
file vouchers most conveniently by making use of a method which 
is described in the following paragraphs : 

Vouchers are properly classified under account numbers and 
are then kept in manila envelopes about 9 in. by 11^/^ in. (22.8 
cm. by 29.2 cm.) in dimensions, the face of each envelope carry- 
ing all account titles and numbers, with space for amounts and 
totals under each class, as shown in Fig. 93. 

Provision is also made for approval signatures, and a record 
of the check number paying the account and other information 
can be inscribed in the open spaces which are left on the en- 
velope to serve the convenience of this office. 



MANAGEMENT 



295 



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Fig. 93 — Face of the Envelope for Filing Vouchers Which is Used by 
A Massachusetts Central Station 



ECONOMY OF KEEPING RECORDS OF LABOR AND 

MATERIAL 

A scheme which encourages employees to economize time and 
material has been successfully developed by the Spokane (Wash.) 
Heat, Light & Power Company. The idea developed primarily 
in connection with construction work, but has been extended to 
include practically all operations where labor and materials are 
involved, even to firing boilers in the central heating plant. 

The plan simply requires an advance estimate of the cost of 
any work to be done, and this estimate, embodied in a written 
work order, is given to the foreman or that employee who has the 
particular work in hand. Thus the work order becomes a bogie 
to the foreman and he endeavors to keep within it if he can. If 
he exceeds the figure set, he has to secure authorization for more 
expenditure, and his explanation of this situation brings out 
either (1) unforeseen conditions, which aid the estimating depart- 
ment in future work, or (2) evidence of waste which the fore- 
man must clear up to the satisfaction of his superior. 

The advantages claimed for the scheme are that, in addition to 
the actual money saving, the psychological effect is excellent. 
Foremen dislike to exceed estimates and be obliged to explain 



296 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



why, and on the other hand they take pride in keeping the cost 
below the estimate. There are also the advantages of an accu- 
rate record of costs conveniently arranged, an allocation of all 
charges for labor, a constant check on materials on hand, and a 
means of making up the payroll easily at any time by totaling 
work-order records. 

There are several forms about which the system centers. These 
begin with a letter size form known as the A. F. E. ("authority 
for expenditure" — Fig. 94), on which are entered the name of 
customer and a brief statement of the work to be done, with a 
list of the more important items that will be required on the 
work. It also states the amount which the work is estimated 
to cost. Before this A. F. E. sheet receives a work-order number 
and the work is classified it must be signed by officials of the 
sales department and the accounting departments, as well as by 



O 



o 



To General Office: 



Spokane heat. Light & Power Company 

AUTHORITY FOR EXPENDITURE 

HCAT-LICHT- POWER 



CONSUMCn 9_ 

RCVCNUI, S. 



CONSU 
RCVINi 




IN THe ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF_ 

IN THE ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF_ 

IN THE ESTIMATED AMOUNT Or_ 

TOTAL. »_ 



CHARGEABLE TO _^ 

CHARGEABLE TO CONSTRUCTION t 



( OTHER THAN TO 



(DESCRrPTlON IN DETAIL MUST ALWAYS BE GIVEN ABOVE. 



OUHATION or WOAX 



<i) pnoPoatD- 



•) APPHOVIO- 



Fig. 94 — Form Used to Embody "Authority for Expenditure" in Central 

Station Operation 

the estimator and some one in a managerial position, either the 
general manager or the president. These A. F. E. sheets are 
made out in triplicate, one copy going to the superintendent, who 



MANAGEMENT 297 

usually prepares the estimates, one copy to the engineering de- 
partment and one to the accounting- department. By using dif- 
ferent colors the three forms are readily kept separate. 

Next in order comes the work order (Fig. 96), a square 4-in. 
(10.16-cm.) slip, also made in triplicate, on which the most im- 
portant entry is simply the work-order number. Of course, it 
also carries date and resume of the work to be done. The copy 
of the work-order sent to the superintendent is on white paper 
and is simply his notification. It is not preserved or required 
again in the records. The yellow and blue copies, however, go- 
ing to the accounting department and the foreman respectively 
are carefully kept, and by them the progress of the work is 
checked on the ledger sheet. This sheet (Fig. 97), which enters 
the scheme at this point, is a page from a loose-leaf file. It also 
bears the work-order number which identifies each individual job 
all through the records and carries the accounting department's 
detailed record of all materials and labor. It carries the figure 
which the work was estimated to cost, so that as the items of labor 
and material charges to the job increase their total can be com- 
pared with the estimate for the job. Thus the approach to the 
limit is readily seen and checked with the progress of the work. 

As soon as the accounting department gets a yellow work-order 
slip, this is attached to a blank ledger sheet made out for the 
job, thus showing that it has been approved for construction. 
"When the work is finished the blue work-order slip, duly signed 
by the foreman, is also attached. Thus a glance through the file 
shows what work is authorized and what is completed. 

When a foreman requires materials he gets them from the 
warehouse by signing a small form called a warehouse slip (Fig. 
98), on which the materials are itemized and which bears the 
work-order number. This is a notice of materials to be charged 
to a job and is sent to the accounting department and copied on 
the ledger sheet carrying the corresponding work-order number. 
Credit for materials returned from a job is later given on a 
similar slip and likewise listed on the ledger sheet. 

One more form enters into the scheme. This is a small time 
slip (Fig. 95) filled out for every workman every day by his fore- 
man. It bears the signature of workman and foreman and indi- 
cates the number of hours each man put in, the work-order num- 
ber to which his work is to be charged and the total charge on 



298 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 




CO 





w 

P 

o 

W 

< 

< 



02 IS] 

M 

" 02 



P ^ 

o 



CO 02 

w o 

M 



CO 



CO 






02 

o 



each work order. The accounting department enters these data 
on the ledger sheet bearing the corresponding work-order num- 
ber. Thus the system simplifies to the point that practically all 
data of permanent value are carried by the ledger sheet and a 
convenient means of completely checking the estimate, cost or 
progress of any job is thus afforded. 

What are known as standing work orders are assigned to such 
work as firing boilers and any other plant maintenance work, so 



MANAGEMENT 299 

that the daily reports can be simplified and yet keep the records 
standard for all kinds of work in which the company uses labor 
and material. 

The system is a new feature, having been worked out in its 
present form only a few months ago, and minor changes have 
been made in it up to a recent date. However, company officials 
express great satisfaction in its effectiveness and point to notable 
reduction in construction costs since its adoption. 

The system described in the preceding paragraphs has been 
worked out by Ludwig Kemper, president of the Spokane Heat, 
Light & Power Company, in conjunction with H. W. John, who 
is secretary-treasurer of the company. 

USING MATERIAL CATALOGS FOR INVENTORY 

PURPOSES 

In making inventories of overhead distribution systems diffi- 
culties are experienced in securing inspectors sufficiently familiar 
with line construction materials to list them correctly in detail. 
One company recently engaged in making a complete inventory 
for use in a rate hearing before a state public service commission 
provided its inspectors with illustrated catalogs showing in detail 
line hardware and appliances with appropriate names and style 
numbers. 

A number of such sheets were provided, showing respectively 
cross-arms, bolts and braces, clamps, pins, brackets, anchors, 
strain insulators, grounding devices, cut-outs, lightning arrest- 
ers, pin-type insulators, disconnecting switches, mast arms, lamp 
reels and hangers, time switches and dead-ends. The smaller de- 
vices were shown grouped in single photographs; the larger ones 
required separate sheets for each style. 

It was found that photographs were cheaper to prepare than 
diagrammatic sketches, besides w^hich they were more easily iden- 
tified in the field. After the inventory was completed the book- 
lets were found of service to inspectors checking completed work 
and to line foremen ordering material from the storeroom. Such 
a catalog will in fact be found useful for any central-station 
employee engaged in the purchase, handling or utilization of line 
materials. 



SECTION VII 
FEMALE LABOR 

WOMAN SUBSTATION OPERATORS A NOTABLE 

SUCCESS 

The war brought a number of changes in central-station prac- 
tice, but few of these are more significant than the use of women 
as substation operators on the system of the Boston (Mass.) 
Edison company. The Roslindale and Dorchester substations 
are now operated exclusively by women, and the results appear 
to be admirable in every way. The service appears to be fully 
as reliable as though men were in charge of these sub-stations. 
Emergencies have been skillfully met, and the effect upon the 
health of the operators has been uniformly good. 

Early in 1918 C. H. Parker, superintendent of the generating 
department of the Boston company, foresaw that continued war 
demands would make it more and more difficult to retain and to 
replace male operators in the substations. The company distri- 
butes energy over an area of about 700 square miles, and for this 
reason the substation service is of great importance. Steps were 
therefore taken to secure applicants through the various subur- 
ban stores of the company, no advertising being required. To 
R. E. Dillon, assistant superintendent of the generating depart- 
ment, was given the task of interviewing the women who applied 
for substation work and passing upon their qualifications. 

In general, fitness depends upon character, size, physique and 
kind of work previously performed. Electrical knowledge or 
experience is not an essential. It has been found that where a 
girl has been doing heavy machine work or farm tasks she is 
usually better fitted to take up operating duties than is one whose 
experience has been purely clerical. A good grade of intelli- 
gence is requisite, although it is not essential that the applicant 
shall have completed even a full grammar-school education. 

Upon accepting eighteen applicants, the company organized 
a course of training for them at the laboratory in the Massachu- 

300 



FEMALE LABOR 



301 



setts Avenue Service Buildings, and here the class was instructed 
in the fundamental principles of electricity. The initial course 
included textbook study, practical demonstrations, equipment set- 
ups, visits to the main generating plant of the company at South 
Boston, trips to substations, lectures, black-board talks, examina- 
tions and reviews. The course was completed in a classroom par- 
titioned off from the operating room at the Roslindale substation, 
the first large installation to be operated entirely by women in 
America. From the start of the work at the substation two 
students were detailed from the class daily to act as assistants to 
the male operators on shift. This gave them an insight into the 
routine work. Thorough instruction was given in the care and 
operation of rectifiers, transformers, regulators, oil switches and 
other equipment. Special study was given to the '^general or- 
ders" of the company and to methods of meeting emergencies. 
On ]\Iay 29 nine students w^ent on watch at the Roslindale sub- 



^.^5K-I338 



1357 
1356 



/.^)^1346 



15.600 Volt Bus 



4000-2500 Volt Bus 



Transfer 
Bus 




StciSer. 



Blower & Recj Nob^^t- 
Fig. 99 — Arrangement of Roslindale Substation 



302 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

station, the male assistant operators being transferred to other 
stations, leaving only the operators, who were kept at Roslindale. 
for the purpose of giving instruction in handling the substation 
routine. They were also given orders to act in a supervisory 
capacity and not to interfere except to prevent a serious error. 
On July 5 the remaining male operators were removed from the 
substation, leaving the women in entire charge. One of the 
former operators was retained to make repairs on apparatus and 
to act as an emergency operator, but the substation has been in 
the hands of women since the foregoing date. The original 
course has been shortened to about thirty days since the first 
class completed its work, and this is now the standard time for 
instruction. 

The provision of separate lavatory facilities is the only change 
of importance required in the transfer of a substation from men 
to women operators, with the exception of extension handles for 
more easily setting oil switches. 

This extension piece consists of a treated wooden handle 
about 18 in. (45.72 cm.) long and 1^/^ in. (38 mm.) square, fitted 
at one end and near the middle with two iron straps to engage 
the head and shank of the ordinary switch handle. The strap 
at the lower end is of ^/4-in. (6.3-mm.) stock, 1 in. (25 mm.) wide 
and 3% in. (84.9 mm.) long, and is bored with two %6-in. (7.9- 
mm.) holes through which a pin 3 in. (75.4 mm.) long is carried 
when the extension piece is attached to the main handle. For 
some types of switch handles a wooden filler block is required 
at the lower end of the extension piece. 

On July 17 the Dorchester substation was taken over by women 
operators. At this substation two members of a second class of 
applicants undergoing instruction were detailed to be '^ broken 
in" by the women operators. This work had previously been 
done by male operators, but was most satisfactorily accomplished 
under the new conditions. 

The general arrangement of the Roslindale substation from the 
electrical point of view is shown in the accompanying single- 
line wiring diagram. The substation supplies energy for power, 
commercial and street lighting and has a rating of about 3790 
kw. There are three banks of air-cooled transformers, two sets 
of 13,800 volt buses and a set of upper, lower and transfer 
buses for 4000/2300-volt service, besides an installation of 540 



FEMALE LABOR 303 

kw. in street-lighting transformer and rectifier equipment. The 
women operators are, of course, required to understand the de- 
tailed arrangement of all equipment in the substation, its han- 
dling and relations to the outside lines. The diagram symbolizes 
the daily work of the operators and is, of course, as familiar to 
them as to the men whom they succeeded. 

The first class began its studies on March 25, and the first sub- 
station was completely taken over by women a little more than 
three months later. The revised course, as given by Mr. Welling- 
ton of the generating department, covers about a month. The 
women operators are paid the same wages as were the men and 
are also under compensation while studying. It is customary to 
take each class over to the South Boston station two or three times 
during the course in order that the general principles of electrical 
production may be set forth more effectively, the work of the load 
dispatcher seen, etc. The course is arranged to occupy six days 
per week, and a part of the work consists in meter reading by 
the entire class at substation switchboards as well as circuit 
tests required in routine operation. 

The schedule of instruction is followed as closely as possible, 
but if occasions arise which necessitate a departure from the 
program, this is carefully noted for use in future courses. It is 
not the plan to hold the class to the exact minute in its curri- 
culum, although the schedule has been planned on such a basis, 
to serve as a guide. Subjects in hand are carried out until com- 
pleted. Every sixth day a review of previous work is held dur- 
ing the morning periods, and a written examination is held dur- 
ing the afternoon periods. The results of the examination then 
serve as a guide in the work of the following five days. 

In general, the instruction starts each morning at 9 o'clock 
and a half-hour of meter reading follows. From 9 :30 until 10 -.45 
the class is then given either a talk or a demonstration, lasting 
until 10 :45, upon the principles or practical application of equip- 
ment. A fifteen-minute recess is then followed by further in- 

Synopsis of Course of Instruction in School for Female Operators 

Course to consist of three parts, parts of the course are combined as 
IS follows: it progresses. 

Part I— Preliminary, progressive. PART I— PRELIMINARY 
Part TI — Theoretical, progressive. 

Part III — Practical, non-progres- 1— Electric Power. 

sive. Either two parts or all three (a) Definition. 



304 



CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 



(b) Journey of a pound of coal 
from coal mine to lamp socket. 

(c) What is to be found in a 
power plant. 

(d) What is to be found in a 
substation. 

2 — The Edison Company — Gener- 
ating Department. 

(a) Some statistics on number of 
stations, yearly output, daily 
output, daily maximum de- 
mand, classes of power gen- 
erated and distributed, etc. 

(b) Kinds of stations: (1) 
Steam-engine stations, (2) 
steam-turbine stations, ( 3 ) 
motor-generator sub-stations, 
(4) transformer substations. 

(c) The generating department: 

( 1 ) Personnel of department, 

(2) personnel of operating 
force, (3) duties of operating 
force. 

(d) Outline of work in substa- 
tions : ( 1 ) Watches, ( 2 ) 
changes and days off, (3) va- 
cations, sick benefits, etc., (4) 
notifications in case of absence 
for any cause. 

( e ) Visits to stations : ( 1 ) 
Fourth station, (2) thirty- 
eighth station, (3) ninth sta- 
tion, (4) forty- third station. 

3 — Electrical Apparatus, 

(a) Visit to stock room — nomen- 
clature of apparatus. 

(b) Electrical terms — synony- 
mous terms, definitions of va- 
rious expressions in use. 

PART II— THEORETICAL 
1 — Electricity. 

(a) Nature and analogy. 

(b) Static and current electric- 
ity. 

(c) Methods of producing elec- 
tricity: (1) Mechanical, (2) 
chemical, (3) thermal. 

(d) Conditions necessary for cur- 
rent flow. 

(e) Properties of conductors and 
insulators — wire sizes, etc. 

(f) Effects of current flow: (1) 



:Magnetic, (2) thermal, (3) 
electrolytic. 

(g) Ohm's law — units, ampere, 
volt and ohm. 

(h) Resistance in series and par- 
allel. 

(i) Characteristics of series and 
parallel connections. 

( j ) Power : ( 1 ) Watt and kilo- 
watt, (2) relation between elec- 
trical and mechanical power. 

(k) Electrical diagrams: (1) 
Symbols, (2) one-line diagrams 
and others. 
2 — Practice. 

(a) INIethods of connecting appa- 
ratus: (1) Series, (2) parallel. 

(b) Methods of making: (1) 
Splices, (2) taps, (3) different 
types of connections to appa- 
ratus. 

3 — Electrical Apparatus in Gen- 
eral. 

(a) All types of circuit breakers, 
switches, etc. 

(b) Incandescent lamps and ac- 
cessories. 

(c) Fuses. 

(d) Bells and signals. 

(e) Wiring principles and prac- 
tice: (T) Conduits, cleat work, 
etc.; (2) line Aviring, overhead 
and underground; (3) high- 
tension wires and cables. 

4 — Magnetism. 

(a) Relation to electricity. 

(b) Laws of magnetism. 

( c ) Electromagnets. 
5 — Batteries. 

(a) Tvpes: (1) Dry cell, (2) wet 
cell. 

(b) Characteristics. 

(c) Uses and methods of connect- 
ing. 

(d) Storage batteries, elemen- 
tary: (1) Characteristics, (2) 
application. 

(e) Why batteries are not used 
instead of generators. 

6 — Meters and Instruments, Di- 
rect-Current. 

(a) T}^pes. 

(b) Description of: (1) Amme- 



FEMALE LABOR 



305 



ter, (2) voltmeter, (8) watt- 
meter, ret'ordin<^. 
(c) Applications and connections. 

7 — Principles of Induction. 
Lenz's law. 

8 — Direct-Current Apparatus. 

(a) Dynamos, elementary: (I) 
Principles, (2) types — charac- 
teristics. 

(b) Motors, elementary: (1) 
Principles, (2) types — charac- 
teristics. 

(c) Operation of dynamos and 
motors. 

9 — Alternating-Current Ele- 
ments. 

(a) Description and analogy. 

(b) Sine wave, elementary. 

(c) Lead and lag. 

(d) Impedance. 

(e) Phase. 

(f) Power factor. 

( g ) Alternating-current-circuits : 

(1) Single-phase, (2) poly- 
phase, (3) transmission lines, 
( 4 ) feeders. 

(h) Alternating-current power, 
(i) Alternating-current connec- 
tions: (1) Delta, (2) "Y"— 
characteristics of each. 
10 — Alternating-Current Appara- 
tus. 

(a) Alternators, elementary — 
theory and characteristics. 

(b) Motors, elementary — theory 
and characteristics. 

(c) Meters: (1) Ammeter, (2) 
voltmeter, (3) indicating watt- 
meter, (4) recording wattmeter. 

(d) Transformers: (1) Theory; 

(2) applications; (3) Charac- 
teristics of power transformers, 
instrument transformers, and 
constant-current transformers; 
(4) Connections — delta and 

PART HI— PRACTICAL 

1 — Apparatus in Stations. 

(a) Location. 

(b) Diagrams. 

2 — Oil-Break Switches. 
( a ) Theory. 



( b ) Types : ( 1 ) Hand-operated, 
(2) remote-control. 

(c) Manipulation. 

3 — Disconnecting Switches. 

(a) Purpose. 

(b) iManipulation. 
4 — Rectifiers. 

(a) Theory. 

(b) Theory of tubes. 

(c) Constant-current transform- 
ers. 

(d) Connections. 

(e) Operation. 

(f) Series circuit characteristics. 

(g) Arc lamps, etc. 

5 — Lightning Arresters. 

(a) Theory. 

(b) Operation. 
6 — Regulators. 

( a ) Theory. 

(b) Operation. 

(c) Auxiliary apparatus: (1) 
Contact-making voltmeters, 
(2) linedrop compensators. 

7 — Protective Systems. 

(a) Methods of protecting appa- 
ratus. 

(b) Methods of protecting lines 
and circuits: (1) Overload and 
time-limit protection, (2) bal- 
anced protection. 

8 — Operating, Elementary. 

(a) Principles of operating — 
precautions, red tags, etc. 

(b) Layout of buses. 

(c) Transformers: (1) Starting 
up and shutting down, (2) 
air-cooling system in use. 

(d) Station service panel. 

(e) Arc-circuit test. 

(f) Low-tension phase test and 
check. 

(g) Testing of potential trans- 
former fuses. 

9 — Operating, Advanced. 

(a) Switching operations, 4000- 
volt board : ( 1 ) Changing over 
buses, (2) grounds, (3) short 
circuits, (4) live crosses, etc., 
(5) use of transfer bus. 

(b) Switching operations, 13,800- 
volt board : ( 1 ) Loss of com- 
mercial line, (2) general switch- 



306 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

ing operations on order from (c) Battery-charging, forty-third 

load dispatcher, station. 

10 — Maintenance. (d) "General orders." 

(a) Minor repairs. (e) Reading of meters. 

(b) Station routine. 

struction or by observation and participation in substation test or 
switchboard handling until noon. Usually the half-hour from 

1 p. M. on, after lunch, is given to informal discussion of mat- 
ters arising in the course or noted in substation visits. From 

2 to 5 P.M. intensive instruction. continues, with a fifteen-min- 
ute recess beginning at 2 :45 o 'clock. In this period there may 
be a visit to another plant, perhaps accompanied by an hour 
of drawing by the class of wiring layouts, etc. From six and 
one-half to seven hours a day are given to instruction work. 
At the close of the course an allowance of about a week is made 
for necessary review work and final practice in switching opera- 
tions, depending upon the fitness of the class members. The 
' ' general orders ' ' of the company are given an increasing amount 
of study as the course progresses. A detailed schedule of the 
topics covered in the course is printed on preceding pages. 

The operators wear a so-called ' ' farmerette ' ' uniform, selected 
by them at a Boston department store in response to the com- 
pany's prohibition of skirts while on duty. This uniform ful- 
fills the ''safety first" requirement without completely sacrific- 
ing feminine taste. 

The course of instruction occupies about 160 hours, divided 
as follows: 

Hours 

Lectures and demonstrations 108 

Visits to stations 15 

Reading indicating and recording instruments 12 

Visit to Edison company's stock room 4 

Manipulation of oil switches ( principle ) 1 

Arc circuit test 3 

Drawing diagrams of station apparatus and wiring layouts 11 
Reviews and general discussions 6 

SUBSTITUTING WOMEN FOR MEN 

It seemed" to be the general opinion of those who spoke in the 
discussion at the labor session of a recent convention of the Iowa 
Section, N. E. L. A., that it would be good policy to secure as 
early as possible the women who will be needed to take the place 



FEMALE LABOR 307 

of men to be called to the colors. Harold Boehmer of Malvern 
stated that he had had a woman reading meters for approxi- 
mately two months and that he was well satisfied with her work. 
She is also delivering bills. He said she enters the homes more 
quickly than a man, causing less disturbance. The customers 
are better satisfied, as she reads the meters with greater accu- 
racy and there is less re-reading to do than formerly. 

M. G. Linn of Des Moines stated that his company was using 
some women as meter readers though still retaining a few men 
in the department to handle the meters which it would be difficult 
for the women to get to. 

John M. Drabelle expressed the opinion that women could be 
employed successfully for meter testing and for calculating all 
power-house records. 

A representative of the Lee Light & Power Company, Clarinda, 
said that the company was using women for collecting and for 
repairing on the customers' premises, as well as for handling all 
light supply work. The company had not then a single man in 
some of its small towns. The local manager is a woman. Ar- 
rangements have been made, however, for a man to go to each 
of these towns once a week. He climbs poles and does the heavy 
work that women are not physically able to do. 

In another Iowa town it was reported that a woman is acting 
as local manager and has a male "trouble-shooter" under her 
direction. This combination is working out satisfactorily. All 
of the companies that were employing women expressed the be- 
lief that they were more honest as a rule than men. 



COMPARISON OF WOMEN WITH MEN 

W. A. Wadsworth, manager of the Kansas Gas & Electric Com- 
pany, Wichita, Kan., speaking on the tendency of central-station 
companies to displace young men of the draft age with female 
employees, stated that in the experience of his company it takes 
about five intelligent women to replace four men on the ordinary 
sort of central-station routine work. It is figured that about one 
out of every twelve women will be absent every day. Moreover, 
the rate of turnover of labor is somewhat increased, so that it is 
necessary to keep a certain percentage of additional help to fill 
in gaps which are caused by positions being suddenly vacated. 



308 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

The company had then twenty-five employees in its accounting 
department and all but three of these were women. Formerly the 
proportion of men and women in this department was reversed. 
The same thing prevails in the application department, which has 
about twelve employees. The company also expected to employ 
women as collectors, but did not believe it would be possible to 
use them for meter reading. 

The experience indicates thus far that more women are re- 
quired for the same work than men, but that female labor can be 
employed at a cost slightly less than that of male clerks. On the 
whole, therefore, the cost of operating a department remains 
about the same, as the one increased cost balances the other de- 
creased cost. 

SUCCESS WITH GIRL METER READERS 

While there has been some hesitation about employing girls or 
women as meter readers owing to the inaccessibility of some 
meters and the condition in which cellars are frequently kept, 
some companies are finding the employment of women in this 
connection very satisfactory. 

The Arkansas Valley Railway, Light & Power Company of 
Pueblo, Col., has for a very long time been employing young 
girls in the meter department as meter readers and has found 
them to be fully as competent and dependable as men in the 
number of meters read, and, according to Superintendent E. F. 
Stone, ^'if anything, more accurate." 

Approximately 90 per cent of the meters in Pueblo are in the 
residence district, which enables girls to read a great percentage 
of the meters. The girls are limited to this district. The com- 
pany employs one young man as a reader who handles the com- 
mercial and industrial districts and also acts as a relief reader. 

The girls are furnished with a leather case in which to carry 
book and flashlight. They are also furnished with an identifica- 
tion card (Fig. 100). They receive the same compensation as 
the men formerly employed at this work. They are reading on 
an average twenty-five meters per hour, work from four to five 
hours in the morning and read "strays" or are employed in the 
shop in the afternoon cleaning and repairing meters. 

By reading the meters in the morning and using the girls in 



FEMALE LABOR 309 

the shop in tlie afternoons the company finds the number of 
"strays" greatly reduced, as a greater percentage of the people 
are away from their residences in the afternoon. 

When a girl is employed as a meter reader she is first required 
to serve at least a week or ten days in the shops cleaning and 
reading the shop meters. She must become efficient in reading 
shop meters before she is allowed to take a route. 

The girls have met with little difficulty in obtaining admis- 
sion to the homes to read meters. From comments that the 



«••■ tM l-l* >•« 



Puebiu, Colo Jan ♦ 1st > 1918 - 

t3o Our Qusitomerg: 

^Uf Uf to CfXtitp, That the bearer of this Card 

Ml8s Ruth Barr 

£$ employed by this CpvnPany as ^Qter R6fider 



Cn»t««ier* will pSeoae admit him to their premites at reaionable 
hoar* ior the ^unpose of reading, teating or inspeotiotf meteri or 
mabisg a«<rc«aary rcpairi. 

7»M Cmr^ hecomes void ^^ r Fob* 1 St #19l8 • 

The Arkansas Valley Railway Light and Power Co. 
( SG D ) E, g, STON E 

Supt. Lighting and Power 

Fig. 100 — Identification Card of Girl Meter Reader 

company has received from the housewives, they prefer to have 
girls read the meters, and the results attained make it very likely 
that the company will continue to use girls in this work. 



WOMEN NOT ALLOWED TO TEST METERS IN 
PENNSYLVANIA 

As a rule the class of men engaged in meter testing are those 
who by age, training and ambition have been attracted by the 
selective service feature of the draft, and as a result most com- 
panies find themselves faced with a shortage of men to carry on 
this work. 

The Duquesne Light Company of Pittsburgh, Pa., was among 
the first to experience this depletion in the ranks of meter testers 
and, being unable to secure enough men over the draft age and 
reluctant to train mere youths for the work, it began to look 
about for women who seemed adapted to it. 



310 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

Five girls were picked from a large number of applicants and 
their course of training started at the laboratory, of which C. W. 
Ward was the superintendent. Of these five, two were deemed 
especially fitted for the service tests and were trained with that 
disposition in view. 

As this practice was a marked departure from past methods it 
was decided to tell the public about it. The route of these test- 
ers was to be determined in advance and the customers to be vis- 
ited were to be advised by printed postal cards, to read as fol- 
lows: 

We are desirous of testinj our electric meter installed at your 
premises in conformity with i^^e requirements of the Public Service 
Commission of the state. 

Owing to the shortage of skilled men occasioned by the war, we have, 
like many other concerns, been compelled to employ female help for 
work previously performed by males. We have, therefore, trained 

several women for meter testing, and one of these. Miss , will call 

at your place about the of for this purpose. 

Will you kindly see that she is given admittance to our meter and 
any other courtesy that her work may require? 

When all the details incident to the venture were about ready 
it was deemed advisable to secure the sanction of the Department 
of Labor and Industry of the state. An inquiry resulted in the 
call of an inspector from the department, before whom the plan 
was laid in detail, and as a result of this conference a letter, from 
which the following extracts are taken, was written to the Du- 
quesne Light Company refusing permission : 

At the last meeting of our Industrial Board it was ruled that in the 
opinion of the board the employment of women for the testing of 
electric meters would not be proper from a moral standpoint inasmuch 
as such work would lead them into out-of-the-way places. 

This action is based on authority vested in the department as out- 
lined in Section 14, Act No. 267, P. L. 1913, which reads as follows: 

"All rooms, buildings and places in this commonwealth where labor 
is employed shall be so constructed, equipped and arranged, operated 
and conducted in all respects as to provide reasonable and adequate 
protection for the life, health, safety and morals of all persons em- 
ployed therein. For the carrying into effect of this provision and the 
provisions of all the laws of this commonwealth the enforcement of 
which is now or shall hereinafter be intrusted to or imposed upon the 



FEMALE LABOR 311 

Commissioner of the Department of Labor and Industry, the Industrial 
Board shall have power to make, alter, amend and repeal general rules 
and regulations necessary for applying such provisions to specific con- 
ditions, and to prescribe means, methods and practices to carry into 
effect and enforce such provisions." 

TRAINING WOMEN FOR METER READERS 

Chiefly because the government had indicated that industries 
must help produce the needed additional military man power, 
the Commonwealth Edison Company of Chicago started to 
use women as meter readers. To train these new employees a 
temporary meter readers' school in charge of the foreman of 
meter readers has been opened. The equipment consists of chairs 
and tables, an exhibit of a number of meters and parts of meters, 
and a large model of a meter dial. This latter is used in meter 
reading practice, and examinations are held after the class has 
been thoroughly instructed by talks accompanied by demonstra- 
tions concerning the construction and working of meters. 

Twenty or thirty changes are made on the large dial, each 
student marking down her record each time on a sheet of paper. 
These sheets are then collected and checked for accuracy. Three 
days is the usual duration of the school course, whereafter the 
graduates start out in their districts, accompanied by one ex- 
perienced meter reader the first day to pilot them through the dif- 
ficulties of practically applying the training they have received. 
Then each woman is given her own route and book of meter cards 
and is on her own responsibility. Only half routes are assigned 
at first. After about one week their work is usually good enough 
for strict supervision to be dispensed with. 

To secure pupils for this school an advertisement was placed in 
one of the daily papers asking for mature women to learn meter 
reading. Those who were selected from the applicants are nearly 
all between thirty and forty years old. They came from many 
walks of life and include even some who have been trained nurses. 
Many of them are married. 

During the selection of the applicants every attempt was 
made to explain fully the arduous character of the work, even to 
the point of attempting to discourage them. Further elimination 
occurred during the three days of schooling, about 30 per cent of 
the classes being dropped during this period. It is notable, how- 



312 CUTTING CENTRAL STATION COSTS 

ever, that of the applicants who have satisfactorily finished their 
schooling only a small percentage have since found it necessary 
to drop out. This is in sharp contrast to the usual practice of 
young men who were formerly used, as 40 per cent of the male 
force was lost during August. While at this writing it was too 
early to draw decisive conclusions, it appeared that women will 
work out more satisfactorily than the class of male help avail- 
able, being able to do as much work and being more accurate, 
principally on account of their greater sense of responsibility. 

Neat leather handbags are given to the women in which to 
carry the meter seals, sealing tool, etc. They are wearing their 
usual street clothes for the time being, but something in the 
nature of a uniform suit will be adopted. 

APPLIANCE REPAIRS CAN BE HANDLED BY WOMEN 

Repairs on lamp cords, electric irons and other appliances 
are being made by a young woman maintainer with excellent re- 
sults at the Head Place offices of the Boston (Mass.) Edison 
Company. This work was formerly done exclusively by men, but 
the inroads of the war led the company to try the experiment of 
utilizing feminine hands and eyes in getting such equipment into 
shape for use as quickly as it was possible to do so. This young 
woman had never had any previous mechanical or electrical ex- 
perience prior to joining the staff of the Edison company early 
in 1918. She was employed for three weeks in filing requisitions 
in the company stock room at the General Service Buildings and 
was then given about a week 's instruction in appliance repairing 
at the Head Place office. From Aug. 1 to Aug. 27 she effected 
447 repairs on appliances, the maximum number per day being 
thirty-four. The hours are from 8 :30 a. m. to 5 p. m., except on 
Saturdays, when the repair department closes at 1 p. m. 

UNIFORMS FOR WOMEN EMPLOYEES 

All women employees of the Kansas City (Mo.) Light & Power 
Company who meet the public on the company's first-floor office 
and salesroom are dressed in a standard uniform. The uniforms, 
which are neat but plain dresses, are made of cambric with poplin 
collars and cuffs. The total cost of material and making is $3 



FEMALE LABOR 313 

per uniform. The company also provides free laundry service 
for these uniforms twice a week, which costs in addition 25 
cents for each dress. 

Uniforms were provided in order to prevent discrepancy in 
costume. Some of these girls have recently taken the places of 
young men. The company formerly employed boys in its lamp- 
renewal department, paying wages ranging from $50 to $60 a 
month. The boys were a source of continual trouble to the com- 
pany, particularly because arguments were constantly arising be- 
tween them and other youths whom customers of the company 
would send to the lamp-renewal department to transact their 
business. 



INDEX 



Account, collecting the, 230 
Account, reducing the delinquent, 

by 80 per cent., 233 
Accounts, economy in meter reading 

and delivery of, 204 
Accounts, method used to decrease 

delinquent, 237 
Accounts, reducing the expense of 

handling, 204 
Air admittance, relation of, to boiler 

performance, 1 1 
Air washers, 92 
Anchor, easily made concrete guy, 

176 
Appliance payriients, difficulty in 

handling, overcome, 239 
Appliance repairs can be handled by 

women, 312 
Appliance sales commission fund for 

the salespeople, 254 
Arrangement that serves purpose of 

double bus, 194 
Asbestos insulation conserves heat, 

75 
Auto transformer betters power 

factor, 284 
Avoiding extravagant use of boilers, 

46 
Avoiding the preventable soot loss, 

59 



B 



Benefits realized by central stations, 

53 
Bill delivery, economy in, 219 
Bill delivery, recent methods of, 215 
Billing, handling, in city of 70,000, 

206 
Billing, large saving bv machine, 

208 
Billing plan that hastens collec- 
tions, 210 



315 



Billing, postal cards for, 213 
Bills, "Cash-and-Carry" plan applied 

to light, 221 
Bills, gas and electric, on same post- 
card, 214 
Boiler and Engine-room, 1-102 
Boiler performance, relation of air 

admittance to, 11 
Boiler-room, conserving oil in, 47 
Boiler-room management plan, 19 
Boilers, how to avoid extravagant 

use of. 46 
Boiler settings, fuel saved by repair- 

ing leaks in. 48 
Bonus plans unsatisfactory, many, 

28 
Bonus system for coal saving, 27 
Bonus system, fuel economy with, 16 
Boys unsatisfactory as meter read 

ers, 204 
Bracing line tower, 156 
Brazing pipe joints to stop steam 

leaks, 49 
Broken chain grate, emergency oper- 
ation of, 48 
Burning dust-bearing coal, 9 
Bus, arrangement that serves pur- 
pose of double, 194 



C 



Cable, duct splicing saves short 
lengths of, 141 

Cable duct splicirig, teaching new 
men, 145 

Cable pole construction, 151 

Cables cooled by fan, 144 ' 

Capacity, increasing transformer, 
189 

Card contract covering light and 
power service, 253 

"Cash-and-Carry" plan applied to 
light bills, 221 

Catalogs, using material, for inven- 
tory purposes, 299 



316 



INDEX 



Changing a power contract to obtain 
greater profit, 244 

Charge for reconnection favored, 251 

Charting instructions to get better 
economies, 97 

Cheap solution for Orsat apparatus, 
70 

Cheap way of increasing line capac- 
ity, 120 

Circuit, correcting power factor in 
distribution, 284 

Circuits, steel conductors for series, 
157 

Clearing house for idle stock, 292 

Coal, burning dust-bearing. 9 

Coal charge brings higher unit rev- 
nue, 274 

Coal, experience with pulverized. 4 

Coal, higher-grade, fired during 
peak, 15 

Coal pile spontaneous combustion, 
71 

Coal, save, by watching radiation 
losses, 40 

Coal saving, bonus system for, 27 

Collections, ninety per cent., by 
twentieth of each month. 235 

Collecting the account, 230 

Collections, billing plan that 
hastens, 210 

Collections, speeding up, 223 

Commercial Department 240-270 

Commission fund, appliance sales, 
for the salespeople, 254 

Comparison of women with men, 307 

Condenser tubes, nozzle for clean- 
ing surface, 70 

Conductor material, formula for 
choice of, 138 

Conductors, steel, for series cir- 
cuits, 157 

Conserving oil in boiler-room, 47 

Continuous meter reading (I, II), 
201 

Contract card, covering light and 
power service, 253 

Contract, changing, to obtain great- 
er profit, 244 

Contracts, granting credit upon 
house-wiring, 228 

Cooling transformers, 182 

Correcting power factor in distribu- 
tion circuit, 284 



Cost of soldering, reducing the, 199 
Cost of station regulator, how to 

reduce, 101 
Costs, determining labor, 166 
Cost, track scales save their, 101 
Credit, granting, 225 
Credit, granting, upon house-wiring 

contracts, 228 
Credits, handling motor and wiring 

order, 229 
Customers to pay excess over 1914 

cost, 264 
Cutting meter test labor, 197 



D 



Delayed meter reading post cards 
\l, 11), 202 

Delinquent accounts, methods used 
to decrease, 237 

Delinquent account, reducing the, 
233 

Demand-meter installation expense, 
paying, 269 

Detection of flaws in transformers, 
136 

Determination of insulation econ- 
omy, 73 

Determining labor costs, 166 

Difficulty in handling appliance pay- 
ments overcome, 239 

Discontinue lamp service, 248 

Distribution, trend of practice in 
overhead, 113 

Duct splicing saves short lengths of 
cable, 141 

Dust-bearing coal, burning, 9 



E 



Easily-made concrete guy anchor, 
176 

Economical practices with meter 
jewels, 197 

Economics of pole timber, 124 

Economies, charting instructions to 
get better, 97 

Economy, how system operators can 
improve, 146 

Economic measure, transformer in- 
spection, an, 130 

Economy, determination of insula- 
tion, 73 



INDEX 



317 



Economy, fuel, with bonus system, 

16 
Economy in bill delivery, 219 
Economy in electrical distribution, 

104 
Economy in meter reading and de- 
livery of accounts, 204 
Economy, increasing station, 75 
Economy in use of fuel, suggestions 

for,*^ 2 
Economy, measuring devices help 

plant, 69 
Economy of good power factor, 277 
Economy of keeping records of la- 
bor and material, 295 
Economy of water effected by inter- 
connection, 113 
Economy problems in northwest, 123 
Educate power-plant operators, how 

best to, 35 
Ediciency, increasing plant, 1 
Efficiency, method for maintaining 

plant, 38 
Electric and gas bills on same post 

card, 214 
Electrical distribution, economy in, 

104 
Emergency operation of broken 

chain grate, 48 
Engine and Boiler-room, 1-102 
Equipment, drying and pulverizing, 

4 
Expense, rubber stamps save, 212 
Experience with pulverized coal, 4 
Explosions, preventing furnace, 17 
Extension to pole top provides for 

extra arm, 178 
Extensions, fixed price on short, 266 
Extensions of lines, methods of 

financing, 260 
Extravagant use of boilers, how to 
avoid, 46 



Fixtures formerly rented now sold 

outright, 251 
Flat-rate customers changed to 

meter basis, 241 
Flate-rate service, stopped, to pre- 
vent energy waste, 240 
Free renewal of fuses discontinued, 

246 
Free services, limitations on, 245 
Fuel bed, uniform, essential, 16 
Fuel economy with bonus system, 

16 
Fuel-oil regulator, results obtained 

by use of, 39 
Fuel saved by repairing leaks in 

boiler settings, 48 
Furnace explosions, preventing, 17 
Fuel, practical suggestions for 

economy in use of, 2 
Fuses, free renewal of, discontinued, 

246 



G 



Gas and electric bills on same post 

card, 214 
Generator, idle, improves power 

factor, 284 
Generator rating, increasing, by pre- 

cooling ventilating air, 93 
Getting the most out of turbo-gen- 
erators, 87 
Girl meter readers a success, 308 
Granting credit, 225 
Granting credit upon house-wiring 

contracts, 228 
Grate, emergency operation of 

broken chain, 48 
Ground plate placed underneath 

line pole, 175 
Ouy anchor, easily-made concrete, 

176 



H 



Fan, cables cooled by, 144 
Fallacy of rule-of-thumb methods, 42 
Farmers' line, financing the, 262 
Female Labor, 300-313 
Financing new tie lines, 259 
Financing the farmers' line, 262 
Fixed price on short extensions, 266 



Handling billing in city of 70,000, 
206 

Handling motor and wiring order 
credits, 229 

Heat, asbestos insulation conserves, 
75 

Heat insulation from an invest- 
ment point of view, 45 



318 



INDEX 



High-grade coal fired during peak, 
15 

High-tension-line copper loss, 105 

Honor roll for uninterrupted serv- 
ice, 292 

How increased rates aflFect revenue, 
275 

How best to educate power-plant 
operators, 35 

How system operators can improve 
economy, 146 

How to avoid extravagant use of 
boilers, 46 

How to reduce cost of station regu- 
lator, 101 

Hydro-electric conditions and coal 
saving, 148 



Interconnection, economy of water 
effected by, 113 

Internal leakage should be avoided, 
84 

Inventory, using material catalogs 
for 299 

Investment point of view, heat in- 
sulation from. 45 

Investment and operating costs, 57 



Jewels, economical practices with 

meter, 197 
Joint usage of poles, 126 



Idle generator improves power 

factor, 283 
Impaired turbine economy, causes 

of, 73 
Improving power factor and voltage 

regulation, 287 
Increasing generator rating by pre- 

cooling ventilating air, 193 
Increasing plant efficiency, 1 
Increasing station economy, 75 
Increasing transformer capacity by 

circulating oil, 189 
Increasing water-wheel efficiency, 

76 
Induction regulator losses, 109 
Inexpensive overhead line crossing 

at railroad, 178 
Inspection, transformer, an economic 

measure, 130 
Installation expense, paying de- 
mand-meter, 269 
Installment period on ranges cut, 

254 
Instructions, charting, to get better 

economies, 97 
Instruments, mechanical, needed in 

a power house, 68 
Insulation, asbestos, conserves heat, 

75 
Insulation economy, determination 

of. 78 
Insulation, sponge-felt, proves of 

value, 74 



Labor costs, determining, 166 
Labor, economy of keeping records 

of, and material, 295 
Labor solution, team system is 

thought to be best, 102 
Lagging, protecting, on soot-blower 

piping, 75 
Lamp bulbs, no free renewals for 

smashed, 249 
Lamps, stops free delivery of, 250 
Lamp renewals, reduction of, 246 
Lamp service, discontinue, 248 
Large saving by machine billing, 

208 
Leaks in boiler settings, fuel saved 

by repairing, 48 
Leaks, brazing pipe joints to stop 

steam, 49 
Leaky glands or exhaust pipes, 81 
Limitations on free services, 245 
Line capacity, cheap way of in- 
creasing, 120 
Line crossing at railroad, inexpen- 
sive overhead, 178 
Line materials, utilization of sec- 
ond-hand, 167 
Line pole, ground plate placed un- 
derneath, 175 
Line rating, raising the voltage to 

increase, 123 
Line tower, bracing, 156 
Lines, financing new tie, 259 
Lines, methods of financing exten- 
sions of, 260 



INDEX 



319 



Long spans permitted by steel wires 
a saving, 163 

Loss, avoiding the preventable soot, 
59 

Losses, save coal by watching radia- 
tion, 40 

Low-tension-line copper loss, 106 



M 



Maintaining plant efficiency, method 
for, 38 

Management, 271-299 

Management plan, boiler-room, 19 

Many bonus plans unsatisfactory, 
28 

Material, economy of keeping rec- 
ords of labor and, 295 

Measuring devices help plant econ- 
omy, 69 

Mechanical instruments needed in a 
power house, 68 

Mechanical stokers, pulverized coal 
versus, 7 

Meter basis, flat-rate customers 
changed to, 241 

Metering equipment, use of, saves 
transformer purchase, 140 

Meter jewels, economical practices 
with, 197 

Meter readers, boys unsatisfactory 
as, 204 

]\Ieter readers, success with girl, 308 

Meter readers, training w^omen for, 
311 

Meter Reading, Billing and Bill 
Delivery, and Collections, 201- 
239 

Meter reading, continuous (I, II), 
201 

Meter reading, delaved, post cards 
(I, II), 202 

Meter reading, economy in, and de- 
livery of accounts, 204 

Meter test labor, cutting, 197 

Meters, women, not allow^ed to test, 
in Pennsylvania, 309 

Method for maintaining plant ef- 
ficiency, 38 

Method used to decrease delinquent 
accounts, 237 

Methods of financing extensions of 
lines, 260 



Methods of removing soot, 61 
Moderate outdoor substation, 185 
;More transformer space on distribu- 
tion pole, 177 



N 



Ninety per cent, collections by 
twentieth of each month, 235 

No free renewals for smashed lamp 
bulbs, 249 

Northwest, economy problems in, 
123 

Nozzle for cleaning surface con- 
denser tubes, 70 



O 



Oil, conserving, in boiler-room, 47 

Oil, increasing transformer capac- 
ity by circulating, 189 

Operators, how best to educate 
power-plant, 35 

Orsat apparatus, cheap solution for, 
70 

Other correlated activities also im- 
portant, 36 

Outdoor substation, 179 

Outdoor substations simple and eco- 
nomical, 184 

Overhead construction, standardiza- 
tion of, 149 

Overhead distribution, trend of 
practice in, 113 

Overhead line crossing, inexpensive, 
at railroad, 178 



Partial loads uneconomical, 83 

Peak load relief, 255 

Pipe joints, brazing, to stop steam 
leaks, 49 

Plan, boiler-room management, 19 

Plan that brings results, task-set- 
ting, 31 

Plant economy, measuring devices 
help, 69 

Plant efficiency, method for main- 
taining, 38 

Pole, more transformer space on 
distribution, 177 

Pole timber, economics of, 124 



320 



INDEX 



Pole top, extension to, provides for 

extra arm, 178 
Poles, joint usage of, 126 
Postal cards for billing, 213 
Power factor and voltage regula- 
tion, improving, 287 
Power factor, auto transformer bet- 
ters, 283 
Power factor, correcting, in distribu- 
tion circuit, 284 
Power factor, economy of good, 277 
Power factor, idle generator im- 
proves, 284 
Power house, mechanical instru- 
ments needed in a, 68 
Power loads, service-charge for, 267 
Power-plant operators, how best to 

educate, 35 
Paying demand-meter installation 

expense, 269 
Plant efficiency, increasing, 1 
Practical suggestions for economy 

in use of fuel, 2 
Precooling ventilating air, increas- 
ing generator rating, 93 
Prepare honor roll for uninter- 
rupted service, 292 
Preventing furnace explosions, 17 
Protecting lagging on soot-blower 

piping, 75 
Pulverized coal, experience with, 4 
Peak, high-grade coal fired during. 



15 



R 



Radiation losses, save coal by watch- 
ing, 40 

Railroad experience in softening 
boiler-feed water, 49 

Raising the voltage to increase line 
rating, 123 

Ranges, installment period on, cut, 
254 

Rates, effect of higher, on revenue, 
275 

Rates, increased, affect revenue, 275 

Rating, raising the voltage to in- 
crease line, 123 

Recent methods of bill delivery, 
215 

Reconnection, charge for, favored, 
251 



Reconnection charge should be en- 
forced, 223 

Records, economy of keeping, of la- 
bor and material, 295 

Reducing costs by softening boiler- 
feed water, 49 

Reducing the cost of soldering, 199 

Reducing the delinquent account by 
80 per cent., 233 

Reducing the expense of handling 
accounts, 204 

Reduction of lamp renewals results, 
246 

Regulator, how to reduce cost of 
station, 101 

Regulator, results obtained by fuel- 
oil, 39 

Relation of air admittance to boiler 
performance, 11 

Relief, peak-load, 255 

Remote control of substations saves 
man-power, 193 

Repairing leaks in boiler settings, 
fuel saved by, 48 

Repairs, appliance, can be handled 
by women, 312 

Responsibility of system operator, 
147 

Results obtained by use of fuel-oil 
regulator, 39 

Revenue, coal charge brings higher 
unit, 274 

Revenue, effect of higher rates on, 
275 

Revenue, how increased rates afTect, 
275 

Rubber stamps save expense, 212 

Rule-of-thumb methods, fallacy of, 
42 



S 



Salesman's assistance in selecting 
transformer sizes, 293 

Save coal by watching radiation 
losses, 40 

Saving coal, bonus system for, 27 

Saving effected by use of soot clean- 
er, 67 

Saving fuel by repairing leaks in 
boiler settings, 48 

Saving time in voucher filing, 294 



INDEX 



321 



Saves man-power, remote control of 
substations, 193 

Saves short lengths of cable, duct 
splicing, 141 

Saves transformer purchase, meter- 
ing equipment, 140 

Scales, track, save their cost in 
short time, 101 

Second-hand line materials, utiliza- 
tion of, 167 

Selling preferred stock at home, 
273 

Selling stock locally, 271 

Series circuits, steel conductors for, 
157 

Service-charge for power loads, 267 

Service installation by one crew, 
167 

Shop versus field testing of new 
Watt-hour meters, 196 

Shop, The, 196-200 

Short extensions, fixed price on, 266 

Simplify turning of corners, vertical 
taps, 145 

Size of watt-hour meter, 252 

Softening boiler-feed water, railroad 
experience in, 49 

Softening boiler feed water, reduc- 
ing costs by, 49 

Soldering, reducing the cost of, 199 

Soot-blower piping, protecting lag- 
ging on, 75 

Soot cleaner, saving effected by use 
of, 67 

Soot loss, avoiding the preventable, 
59 

Speeding up collections, 223 

Splicing, duct, saves short lengths 
of cable, 141 

Splicing, teaching new men cable 
duct. 145 

Sponge-felt insulation proves of 
value, 74 

Spontaneous combustion, coal pile, 
71 

Stamps, rubber, save expense, 212 

Standardization of overhead con- 
struction, 149 

Station economy, increasing, 75 

Station regulator, how to reduce 
cost of, 101 

Station, utilizing surplus capacity 
of water- works, 276 



Steel conductors for series circuits, 
157 

Stock, clearing house for idle, 292 

Stock, selling, locally, 271 

Stock, selling preferred, at home, 
273 

Stokers, pulverized coal versus me- 
chanical, 7 

Stop fiat-rate service to prevent en- 
ergy waste, 240 

Stops free delivery of lamps, 250 

Substation, moderate outdoor, 185 

Substation operators, women, a no- 
table success, 300 

Substation, outdoor, 179 

Substations, outdoor, simple and 
economical, 184 

Substations, remote control of, saves 
man -power, 193 

Substituting women for men, 306 

Success with girl meter readers, 308 

Suggestions for economy in use of 
fuel, 2 

Surcharge method useful, 243 

Synchronous condensers, benefits of, 
287 

System, The, 103-195 



Taps, vertical, simplify the turn- 
ing of corners, 145 

Task-setting plan that brings re- 
sults, 31 

Team system is thought to be the 
best labor solution, 102 

Teaching new men cable duct splic- 
ing, 145 

Testing for burn-outs, 138 

Tie lines, financing new, 259 

Tower, bracing line, 156 

Tower, wooden, for a long span 
crossing, 156 

Track scales save their cost in very 
short time, 101 

Trade acceptance helps business, 237 

Training women for motor readers, 
311 

Transformer, auto, betters power 
factor, 283 

Transformer capacity, increasing, by 
circulating oil, 189 



322 



INDEX 



Transformer inspection an economic 
measure, 130 

Transformer sizes, salesman's as- 
sistance in selecting, 293 

Transformer space on distribution 
pole, 177 

Trend of practice in overhead dis- 
tribution, 113 

Turbine economy, causes of im- 
paired, 78 

Turbo-generators, getting the most 
out of, 87 



U 



Uniform fuel bed essential, 16 

Uniforms for women employees, 312 

Uninterrupted service, prepare hon- 
or roll for, 292 

Unsatisfactory, many bonus plans 
28 

Use of metering equipment saves 
transformer purchase, 140 

Using material catalogs for inven- 
tory purposes, 299 

Utilization of second-hand line ma- 
terials, 167 

Utilizing surplus capacity of water- 
works station, 276 



Vertical taps simplify the turning 
of corners, 145 



Voltage, raising the, to increase line 

rating, 123 
Voltage regulation, 108 
Voltage regulation, improving power 

factor and, 287 
Voucher filing, saving time in, 294 



W 



Water, economy of, effected by in- 
terconnection, 113 

Water, reducing costs by softening 
boiler-feed, 49 

Water-works station, utilizing sur- 
plus capacity of, 276 

Water-wheel efficiency, increasing, 76 

Watt-hour meters, shop versus field 
testing of, 196 

Watt-hour meter, size of,. 252 

Wires, long spans permitted by steel, 
163 

Wooden tower for a long span cross- 
ing, 156 

Women, appliance repairs can be 
handled by, 312 

Women, comparison of, with men, 
307 

Women employees, uniforms for, 312 

Women for men, substituting, 306 

Women not allowed to test meters 
in Pennsylvania, 309 

Women substation operators a no- 
table success, 300 

Women, training, for meter readers, 
311 



THE END 



